Myology

@article{gould1848apteryx,
    author = "Gould, John",
    title = "Apteryx Australis, Shaw., Kiwi-kiwi, [Pl. 2]",
    year = "1848",
    journal = "The birds of Australia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/p.313326",
    doi = "10.5962/p.313326",
    volume = "6"
}

@techreport{romer1923the11,
    author = "Romer, A. S",
    title = "The pelvic musculature of saurischian dinosaurs",
    year = "1923",
    howpublished = "Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, v. 48, p. 533-552",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Romer, A. S., 1923, The pelvic musculature of saurischian dinosaurs: Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, v. 48, p. 533-552.}"
}

@book{george1966avain4,
    author = "George, J. C. and Berger, A. J",
    title = "Avain Myology",
    year = "1966",
    publisher = "New York, Academic Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {George, J. C., and Berger, A. J., 1966, Avain Myology: New York, Academic Press.}"
}

@misc{flood1968structure3,
    author = "Flood, P. R",
    title = "Structure of the segmental trunk muscle in amphioxus",
    year = "1968",
    howpublished = {with notes on the course and "endings" of the so-called ventral root fibres: Zeitschrift fr Zellforschung und Mikro-skopische Anatomie, v. 84, p. 389- 416},
    note = {talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Flood, P. R., 1968, Structure of the segmental trunk muscle in amphioxus: with notes on the course and "endings" of the so-called ventral root fibres: Zeitschrift fr Zellforschung und Mikro-skopische Anatomie, v. 84, p. 389- 416.}}
}

@article{blight1977the1,
    author = "Blight, A. R",
    title = "The muscular control of vertebrate swimming motions",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Biological Reviews, v. 52, p. 181-218",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Blight, A. R., 1977, The muscular control of vertebrate swimming motions: Biological Reviews, v. 52, p. 181-218.}"
}

@book{bone1978locomotor2,
    author = "Bone, Q",
    title = "Locomotor Muscle, in Hoar, W. S., and Randall, D. J., eds., Fish Physiology",
    year = "1978",
    publisher = "New York, Academic Press, v. VII",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bone, Q., 1978, Locomotor Muscle, in Hoar, W. S., and Randall, D. J., eds., Fish Physiology: New York, Academic Press, v. VII.}"
}

Incubation temperatures of the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) were studied by telemetry methods. Using the equipment described, the temperature was found to be 37.0°C on the upper surface of the egg in contact with the male’s brood patch and 35.0°C at an approximate embryo depth within the egg. Using the temperatures obtained and to test the observation that the eggs are not turned, artificial incubation of a kiwi egg was successfully carried out.

@article{rowe1978incubation,
    author = "Rowe, Barry",
    title = "Incubation temperatures of the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli)",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Notornis",
    abstract = "Incubation temperatures of the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) were studied by telemetry methods. Using the equipment described, the temperature was found to be 37.0°C on the upper surface of the egg in contact with the male’s brood patch and 35.0°C at an approximate embryo depth within the egg. Using the temperatures obtained and to test the observation that the eggs are not turned, artificial incubation of a kiwi egg was successfully carried out.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.63172/775141iixtcy",
    doi = "10.63172/775141iixtcy",
    number = "3",
    pages = "213",
    volume = "25"
}

The most complete account of the hind leg muscles of the kiwi was published a century ago by Sir Richard Owen, in his seventy‐fifth year. This extensively‐cited work has several omissions and errors, and while certain of these were corrected by subsequent authors, sufficient uncertainty remains to warrant a reinvestigation. In the present study a detailed description of the hind leg musculature is given, based upon dissections of two frozen specimens. An indication of the possible function of each muscle is given by assessing its size, action, and fiber‐arrangement, together with tentative data on the relative abundance of twitch and tonus fibers. The correlation between surface features of bones and muscle attachments is investigated with a view to interpreting palaeontological material. Although the limb and pelvic bones are marked by numerous features which suggest muscle attachments, relatively few can be positively identified with specific muscles. Only 23% of the muscle origins and insertions can be identified, and, with three possible exceptions, no indication of relative size is given by the scars. The possibility of being able to reconstruct the musculature of the kiwi from its skeletal anatomy, much less that of its extinct relatives, is remote.

@article{mcgowan1979the,
    author = "McGowan, Christopher",
    title = "The hind limb musculature of the brown kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology",
    abstract = "The most complete account of the hind leg muscles of the kiwi was published a century ago by Sir Richard Owen, in his seventy‐fifth year. This extensively‐cited work has several omissions and errors, and while certain of these were corrected by subsequent authors, sufficient uncertainty remains to warrant a reinvestigation. In the present study a detailed description of the hind leg musculature is given, based upon dissections of two frozen specimens. An indication of the possible function of each muscle is given by assessing its size, action, and fiber‐arrangement, together with tentative data on the relative abundance of twitch and tonus fibers. The correlation between surface features of bones and muscle attachments is investigated with a view to interpreting palaeontological material. Although the limb and pelvic bones are marked by numerous features which suggest muscle attachments, relatively few can be positively identified with specific muscles. Only 23\% of the muscle origins and insertions can be identified, and, with three possible exceptions, no indication of relative size is given by the scars. The possibility of being able to reconstruct the musculature of the kiwi from its skeletal anatomy, much less that of its extinct relatives, is remote.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.1051600105",
    doi = "10.1002/jmor.1051600105",
    number = "1",
    pages = "33-73",
    volume = "160"
}

@article{mcgowen1979the6,
    author = "McGowen, C",
    title = "The hindlimb musculature of the Brown Kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology, v. 160, p. 33-74",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {McGowen, C., 1979, The hindlimb musculature of the Brown Kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli: Journal of Morphology, v. 160, p. 33-74.}"
}

@article{scarlett1979the,
    author = "Scarlett, Ron J.",
    title = "The hind limb musculature of the brown kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Notornis",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.63172/783716nfvuwm",
    doi = "10.63172/783716nfvuwm",
    number = "3",
    pages = "323",
    volume = "26"
}

@article{reid1981estimating,
    author = "Reid, Brian",
    title = "Estimating the fresh weight of eggs of brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli)",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Notornis",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.63172/227749eqznrp",
    doi = "10.63172/227749eqznrp",
    number = "4",
    pages = "288",
    volume = "28"
}

@article{fleming1982the,
    author = "Fleming, Charles A.",
    title = "The wing musculature of the brown kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli and its bearing on ratite affinities",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Notornis",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.63172/461814nikscx",
    doi = "10.63172/461814nikscx",
    number = "4",
    pages = "340",
    volume = "29"
}

Most previous accounts of the wing muscles of the kiwi have only dealt with the proximal muscles. The few accounts that have treated the distal muscles are incomplete in other respects and sufficient uncertainty exists to warrant the present study. The wing musculature of the kiwi is closely similar to that of other ratites but markedly dissimilar to that of the carinates. In this regard the wing muscles differ from those of the leg. Ratites have far fewer wing muscles than carinates. Significantly, they lack propatagial muscles (and almost certainly propatagia), and neither the M. pectoralis nor the M. supracoracoideus is well developed; in carinates these two flight muscles comprise the bulk of the wing musculature. Furthermore, the insertion tendon of the M. supracoracoideus does not loop through a triosseal canal to effect wing elevation as it does in the carinates. In all of these regards the ratite condition is closer to that of reptiles than of carinates. This raises the question of whether ratites should be regarded as primitive birds, rather than as advanced birds that evolved from carinates. The present skeleto‐muscular data, taken with other evidence, suggests that ratites are primitive birds that evolved from a primitive, volant ancestor. The elements of the pectoral skeleton show a greater degree of individual variation than those of the pelvic skeleton. Aside from its extreme curvature the humerus is the most rudimentary element and few of its features can be compared with those of the carinate humerus. Few of the wing muscles have attachments that can be identified with specific osteological features. Myological data for the kiwi are therefore virtually irretrievable from osteological material, as noted previously for the pelvic muscles. While this might be peculiar to the kiwi (which seems unlikely) the fact should serve as a cautionary note to palaeontologists attempting to reconstruct the muscles of extinct animals.

@article{mcgowan1982the,
    author = "McGowan, C.",
    title = "The wing musculature of the Brown kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli and its bearing on ratite affinities",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology",
    abstract = "Most previous accounts of the wing muscles of the kiwi have only dealt with the proximal muscles. The few accounts that have treated the distal muscles are incomplete in other respects and sufficient uncertainty exists to warrant the present study. The wing musculature of the kiwi is closely similar to that of other ratites but markedly dissimilar to that of the carinates. In this regard the wing muscles differ from those of the leg. Ratites have far fewer wing muscles than carinates. Significantly, they lack propatagial muscles (and almost certainly propatagia), and neither the M. pectoralis nor the M. supracoracoideus is well developed; in carinates these two flight muscles comprise the bulk of the wing musculature. Furthermore, the insertion tendon of the M. supracoracoideus does not loop through a triosseal canal to effect wing elevation as it does in the carinates. In all of these regards the ratite condition is closer to that of reptiles than of carinates. This raises the question of whether ratites should be regarded as primitive birds, rather than as advanced birds that evolved from carinates. The present skeleto‐muscular data, taken with other evidence, suggests that ratites are primitive birds that evolved from a primitive, volant ancestor. The elements of the pectoral skeleton show a greater degree of individual variation than those of the pelvic skeleton. Aside from its extreme curvature the humerus is the most rudimentary element and few of its features can be compared with those of the carinate humerus. Few of the wing muscles have attachments that can be identified with specific osteological features. Myological data for the kiwi are therefore virtually irretrievable from osteological material, as noted previously for the pelvic muscles. While this might be peculiar to the kiwi (which seems unlikely) the fact should serve as a cautionary note to palaeontologists attempting to reconstruct the muscles of extinct animals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.1982.197.2.173",
    doi = "10.1111/jzo.1982.197.2.173",
    number = "2",
    pages = "173-219",
    volume = "197"
}

@article{mcgowen1982the7,
    author = "McGowen, C",
    title = "The wing musculature of the Brown Kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli and its bearing on ratite affinities",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology, v. 197, p. 179- 219",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {McGowen, C., 1982, The wing musculature of the Brown Kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli and its bearing on ratite affinities: Journal of Zoology, v. 197, p. 179- 219.}"
}

@misc{oilphant1983first9,
    author = "Oilphant, L. W",
    title = "First observations of brown fat in birds",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "Condor, v. 85, p. 350-354",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Oilphant, L. W., 1983, First observations of brown fat in birds: Condor, v. 85, p. 350-354.}"
}

@book{macmahon1984muscles5,
    author = "MacMahon, T. A",
    title = "Muscles, Reflexes and Locomotion",
    year = "1984",
    publisher = "Princeton, Princeton University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {MacMahon, T. A., 1984, Muscles, Reflexes and Locomotion: Princeton, Princeton University Press.}"
}

@article{perle1985comparative10,
    author = "Perle, A",
    title = "Comparative myology of the pelvic-femoral region in bipedal dinosaurs",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Palaeontological Journal, v. 19, p. 105-109",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Perle, A., 1985, Comparative myology of the pelvic-femoral region in bipedal dinosaurs: Palaeontological Journal, v. 19, p. 105-109.}"
}

@article{mcgowen1986the8,
    author = "McGowen, C",
    title = "The wing musculature of the Weka (Gallirallus australis), a flightless rail endemic to New Zealand",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology, v. 210, p. 305- 346",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {McGowen, C., 1986, The wing musculature of the Weka (Gallirallus australis), a flightless rail endemic to New Zealand: Journal of Zoology, v. 210, p. 305- 346.}"
}

@article{howland1992focusing,
    author = "Howland, H.C. and Howland, M. and Schmid, K.L.",
    title = "Focusing and accommodation in the brown kiwi (Apteryx australis)",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Journal of Comparative Physiology A",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00198978",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00198978",
    number = "6",
    volume = "170"
}

@misc{fjeldså2020okarito,
    author = "Fjeldså, Jon and Sharpe, Chris",
    title = "Okarito Brown Kiwi (Apteryx rowi)",
    year = "2020",
    booktitle = "Birds of the World",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.okbkiw1.01",
    doi = "10.2173/bow.okbkiw1.01"
}

@misc{folch2020southern,
    author = "Folch, Anna and Jutglar, Francesc and Garcia, Ernest",
    title = "Southern Brown Kiwi (Apteryx australis)",
    year = "2020",
    booktitle = "Birds of the World",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.sobkiw1.01",
    doi = "10.2173/bow.sobkiw1.01"
}