Nervous system

@article{doi101038003084b0,
    author = "P, H.",
    title = "Studien über das Central Nerven-System der Wirbelthiere",
    year = "1870",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e0abca05b581a47c42e4c2c5fdfc4e775ff12b35",
    doi = "10.1038/003084b0",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "57",
    pages = "84-85",
    semanticscholar_id = "e0abca05b581a47c42e4c2c5fdfc4e775ff12b35",
    volume = "3"
}

@book{ramnycalal1906the25,
    author = "Ramn y Calal, S",
    title = "The structure and connexions of neurons. Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1906, in Nobel Lectures including Presentation Speeches and Laureates' Biographies, Physiology or Medicine 1901-1921",
    year = "1906",
    publisher = "Amsterdam, Elsevier",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Ramn y Calal, S., 1906, The structure and connexions of neurons. Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1906, in Nobel Lectures including Presentation Speeches and Laureates' Biographies, Physiology or Medicine 1901-1921: Amsterdam, Elsevier.}"
}

@book{sherrington1906the30,
    author = "Sherrington, C. S",
    title = "The Integrative Action of the Nervous System",
    year = "1906",
    publisher = "New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sherrington, C. S., 1906, The Integrative Action of the Nervous System: New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press.}"
}

@article{adrian1931potential1,
    author = "Adrian, E. D. and Buytendyk, F. J",
    title = "Potential changes in the isolated brain stem of the goldfish",
    year = "1931",
    journal = "Journal of Physiology, v. 71, p. 121-135",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Adrian, E. D., and Buytendyk, F. J., 1931, Potential changes in the isolated brain stem of the goldfish: Journal of Physiology, v. 71, p. 121-135.}"
}

@article{boeke1935the6,
    author = "Boeke, J",
    title = "The autonomic (enteric) nrevous system of Amphioxus lanceolatus",
    year = "1935",
    journal = "Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, v. 77, p. 623- 658",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Boeke, J., 1935, The autonomic (enteric) nrevous system of Amphioxus lanceolatus: Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, v. 77, p. 623- 658.}"
}

@misc{kappers1936the23,
    author = "Kappers, C. U. A. and Huber, G. C. and Crosby, E. C",
    title = "The Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System of Vertebrates, Including Man",
    year = "1936",
    howpublished = "New York, Macmillan; 2 Volumes",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kappers, C. U. A., Huber, G. C., and Crosby, E. C., 1936, The Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System of Vertebrates, Including Man: New York, Macmillan; 2 Volumes.}"
}

@book{young1938the33,
    author = "Young, J. Z",
    title = "The Evolution of the Nervous System and of the Relationship of Organism and Environment, in de Beer, G. R., ed., Evolution",
    year = "1938",
    publisher = "Essays on Aspects of Evolutionary Biology, Presented to Professor E.S. Goodrich on his 70th Birthday: Oxford, Claredon Press, p. 179-204",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Young, J. Z., 1938, The Evolution of the Nervous System and of the Relationship of Organism and Environment, in de Beer, G. R., ed., Evolution: Essays on Aspects of Evolutionary Biology, Presented to Professor E.S. Goodrich on his 70th Birthday: Oxford, Claredon Press, p. 179-204.}"
}

@techreport{bullock1940the12,
    author = "Bullock, T. H",
    title = "The functional organization of the nervous system of Enteropnuesta",
    year = "1940",
    howpublished = "Biological Bulletin, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass., v. 79, p. 91-113",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bullock, T. H., 1940, The functional organization of the nervous system of Enteropnuesta: Biological Bulletin, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass., v. 79, p. 91-113.}"
}

@article{crossref1943anatomy,
    title = "Anatomy of Central Nervous System",
    year = "1943",
    journal = "BMJ",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.4293.478",
    doi = "10.1136/bmj.1.4293.478",
    number = "4293",
    pages = "478-478",
    volume = "1"
}

@article{bullock1944the13,
    author = "Bullock, T. H",
    title = "The giant nerve fibre system in balanoglossids",
    year = "1944",
    journal = "Journal of Comparative Neurology, v. 80, p. 355-368",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bullock, T. H., 1944, The giant nerve fibre system in balanoglossids: Journal of Comparative Neurology, v. 80, p. 355-368.}"
}

@book{sherrington1947the31,
    author = "Sherrington, C. S",
    title = "The Integrative Action of the Nervous System",
    year = "1947",
    publisher = "Cambridge, Cambridge University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sherrington, C. S., 1947, The Integrative Action of the Nervous System: Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.}"
}

@misc{florey1951reizphysiologie22,
    author = "Florey, E",
    title = "Reizphysiologie Untersuchungen an der Ascidie Ciona intestinatis",
    year = "1951",
    howpublished = "Biologisches Zentralblatt, v. 70, p. 523-530",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Florey, E., 1951, Reizphysiologie Untersuchungen an der Ascidie Ciona intestinatis: Biologisches Zentralblatt, v. 70, p. 523-530.}"
}

@misc{ranson1959the26,
    author = "Ranson, S. W. and Clarke, S. L",
    title = "The Anatomy of the Nervous System",
    year = "1959",
    howpublished = "Its Development and Function [10th ed.]: Philadelphia, Saunders",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Ranson, S. W., and Clarke, S. L., 1959, The Anatomy of the Nervous System: Its Development and Function [10th ed.]: Philadelphia, Saunders.}"
}

@article{bone1960the,
    author = "Bone, Quentin",
    title = "The central nervous system in amphioxus",
    year = "1960",
    journal = "Journal of Comparative Neurology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.901150105",
    doi = "10.1002/cne.901150105",
    number = "1",
    pages = "27-64",
    volume = "115"
}

@article{bone1960the7,
    author = "Bone, Q",
    title = "The central nervous system in amphioxus",
    year = "1960",
    journal = "Journal of Comparative Neurology, v. 115, p. 27-64",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bone, Q., 1960, The central nervous system in amphioxus: Journal of Comparative Neurology, v. 115, p. 27-64.}"
}

@misc{bone1961the8,
    author = "Bone, Q",
    title = "The organisation of the atrial nervous system of Amphioxus",
    year = "1961",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bone, Q., 1961, The organisation of the atrial nervous system of Amphioxus}"
}

@misc{dodd1966an16,
    author = "Dodd, J. M. and Dodd, M. H. I",
    title = "An Experimental Investigation of the Supposed Pituitary Affinities of the Ascidian Neural Complex, in Barnes, H., ed., Some Contemporary Studies in Marine Science",
    year = "1966",
    howpublished = "London, Allen and Unwin",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dodd, J. M., and Dodd, M. H. I., 1966, An Experimental Investigation of the Supposed Pituitary Affinities of the Ascidian Neural Complex, in Barnes, H., ed., Some Contemporary Studies in Marine Science: London, Allen and Unwin.}"
}

@techreport{aronson1967instrumental3,
    author = "Aronson, L. R. and Kaplan, H. and Aronson, F. R. and Clark, E",
    title = "Instrumental conditioning and light-dark discrimination in young nurse sharks",
    year = "1967",
    howpublished = "Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean, v. 17, p. 249-256",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Aronson, L. R., Kaplan, H., Aronson, F. R., and Clark, E., 1967, Instrumental conditioning and light-dark discrimination in young nurse sharks: Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean, v. 17, p. 249-256.}"
}

@book{aronson1968function2,
    author = "Aronson, L. R. and Kaplan, H",
    title = "Function of the Teleostean Forebrain, in Ingle, D., ed., The Central Nervous System and Fish Behavior",
    year = "1968",
    publisher = "Chicago, University of Chicago Press, p. 107-125",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Aronson, L. R., and Kaplan, H., 1968, Function of the Teleostean Forebrain, in Ingle, D., ed., The Central Nervous System and Fish Behavior: Chicago, University of Chicago Press, p. 107-125.}"
}

@book{bennett1968neural4,
    author = "Bennett, M. V. L",
    title = "Neural Control of Electric Organs, in Ingle, D., ed., The Central Nervous System and Fish Behavior",
    year = "1968",
    publisher = "Chicago, University of Chicago Press, p. 147-169",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bennett, M. V. L., 1968, Neural Control of Electric Organs, in Ingle, D., ed., The Central Nervous System and Fish Behavior: Chicago, University of Chicago Press, p. 147-169.}"
}

@misc{flood1968structure21,
    author = "Flood, P. R",
    title = "Structure of the segmental trunk muscle in amphioxus",
    year = "1968",
    howpublished = {with notes on the course and "endings" of the so-called ventral root fibres: Zeitschrift fr Zellforschung und Mikro-skopische Anatomie, v. 84, p. 389- 416},
    note = {talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Flood, P. R., 1968, Structure of the segmental trunk muscle in amphioxus: with notes on the course and "endings" of the so-called ventral root fibres: Zeitschrift fr Zellforschung und Mikro-skopische Anatomie, v. 84, p. 389- 416.}}
}

@article{doi101016s1546509808601260,
    author = "Bernstein, J. J.",
    title = "1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Central Nervous System",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "Fish Physiology",
    booktitle = "Fish Physiology",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d06f3c96267cea7f21eaa17f58132276f258248c",
    doi = "10.1016/S1546-5098(08)60126-0",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "1-90",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "29",
    semanticscholar_id = "d06f3c96267cea7f21eaa17f58132276f258248c"
}

@misc{eccles1970responses20,
    author = "Eccles, J. C. and Tborkov, H. and Tsukahara, N",
    title = "Responses of the Purkyn cells of a selachian cerebellum ( Mustellus canis)",
    year = "1970",
    howpublished = "Brain Research, v. 17, p. 57-86",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Eccles, J. C., Tborkov, H., and Tsukahara, N., 1970, Responses of the Purkyn cells of a selachian cerebellum ( Mustellus canis): Brain Research, v. 17, p. 57-86.}"
}

@book{bennett1971electric5,
    author = "Bennett, M. V. L",
    title = "Electric Organs, in Hoar, W. S., and Randall, D. J., eds., Fish Physiology",
    year = "1971",
    publisher = "New York, Academic Press, v. V, p. 347-491",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bennett, M. V. L., 1971, Electric Organs, in Hoar, W. S., and Randall, D. J., eds., Fish Physiology: New York, Academic Press, v. V, p. 347-491.}"
}

@misc{eakin1971ultrastructure17,
    author = "Eakin, R. M. and Kuda, A",
    title = "Ultrastructure of sensory receptors in ascidian tadpoles",
    year = "1971",
    howpublished = "Zeitschrift fr Zellforschung und Mikro-skopische Anatomie, v. 112, p. 287-312",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Eakin, R. M., and Kuda, A., 1971, Ultrastructure of sensory receptors in ascidian tadpoles: Zeitschrift fr Zellforschung und Mikro-skopische Anatomie, v. 112, p. 287-312.}"
}

@misc{ebbesson1972a19,
    author = "Ebbesson, S. O. E",
    title = "A proposal for a common nomenclature for some optic nuclei in vertebrates and the evidence for a common origin of two such cell groups",
    year = "1972",
    howpublished = "Brain, Behavior and Evolution, v. 6, p. 75-91",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Ebbesson, S. O. E., 1972, A proposal for a common nomenclature for some optic nuclei in vertebrates and the evidence for a common origin of two such cell groups: Brain, Behavior and Evolution, v. 6, p. 75-91.}"
}

@misc{ebbesson1972new18,
    author = "Ebbesson, S. O. E",
    title = "New insights into the organization of the shark brain",
    year = "1972",
    howpublished = "Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, v. 42, p. 121-129",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Ebbesson, S. O. E., 1972, New insights into the organization of the shark brain: Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, v. 42, p. 121-129.}"
}

@book{sterba1972nuero32,
    author = "Sterba, G",
    title = "Nuero- and Gliasecretion, in Hardisty, M. W., and Potter, I. C., eds., The Biology of Lampreys",
    year = "1972",
    publisher = "London, Academic Press, v. 2, p. 69- 89",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sterba, G., 1972, Nuero- and Gliasecretion, in Hardisty, M. W., and Potter, I. C., eds., The Biology of Lampreys: London, Academic Press, v. 2, p. 69- 89.}"
}

@inproceedings{mackie1974branchial24,
    author = "Mackie, G. O. and Paul, D. H. and Singla, C. M. and Sleigh, M. A. and Williams, D. E",
    title = "Branchial innervation and ciliary control in the ascidian Corella",
    year = "1974",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Royal Society, London B, v. 187, p. 1-35",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Mackie, G. O., Paul, D. H., Singla, C. M., Sleigh, M. A., and Williams, D. E., 1974, Branchial innervation and ciliary control in the ascidian Corella: Proceedings of the Royal Society, London B, v. 187, p. 1-35.}"
}

@article{rovainen1974synaptic27,
    author = "Rovainen, C. M",
    title = "Synaptic interactions of identified nerve cells in the spinal cord of the sea lamprey",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Journal of Comparative Neurology, v. 154, p. 189-206",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Rovainen, C. M., 1974, Synaptic interactions of identified nerve cells in the spinal cord of the sea lamprey: Journal of Comparative Neurology, v. 154, p. 189-206.}"
}

@inproceedings{dilly1975the15,
    author = "Dilly, P. N",
    title = "The pterobranch Rhabdopleura compacta",
    year = "1975",
    booktitle = "its nervous system and phylogenetic position: Symposium of the Zoological Society, London, v. 36, p. 1-16",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dilly, P. N., 1975, The pterobranch Rhabdopleura compacta: its nervous system and phylogenetic position: Symposium of the Zoological Society, London, v. 36, p. 1-16.}"
}

@article{rovainen1976vestibuloocular28,
    author = "Rovainen, C. M",
    title = "Vestibulo-ocular reflexes in the adult sea lamprey",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Journal of Comparative Physiology, v. 112, p. 159-164",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Rovainen, C. M., 1976, Vestibulo-ocular reflexes in the adult sea lamprey: Journal of Comparative Physiology, v. 112, p. 159-164.}"
}

@article{bone1978cupular10,
    author = "Bone, Q. and Ryan, K. P",
    title = "Cupular sense organs in Ciona (Tunicata",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Ascidiacea): Journal of Zoology, London, v. 186, p. 417-429",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bone, Q., and Ryan, K. P., 1978, Cupular sense organs in Ciona (Tunicata: Ascidiacea): Journal of Zoology, London, v. 186, p. 417-429.}"
}

@article{bone1979the11,
    author = "Bone, Q. and Ryan, K. P",
    title = "The Langerhans receptor of Oikopleura (Tunicata",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Larvacea): Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, v. 59, p. 69-75",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bone, Q., and Ryan, K. P., 1979, The Langerhans receptor of Oikopleura (Tunicata: Larvacea): Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, v. 59, p. 69-75.}"
}

@article{denton1979the14,
    author = "Denton, E. J. and Nicol, J. A. C. and Gilpin-Brown, J. B. and Wright, P. G. and Gray, J. A. B. and Blaxter, J. H. S",
    title = "The mechanics of the clupeid acoustico- lateralis system",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "frequency responses: Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, v. 59, p. 27-47",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Denton, E. J., Nicol, J. A. C., Gilpin-Brown, J. B., Wright, P. G., Gray, J. A. B., and Blaxter, J. H. S., 1979, The mechanics of the clupeid acoustico- lateralis system : frequency responses: Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, v. 59, p. 27-47.}"
}

@article{rovainen1979neurobiology29,
    author = "Rovainen, C. M",
    title = "Neurobiology of lampreys",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Physiological Reviews, v. 59, p. 1007-1077",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Rovainen, C. M., 1979, Neurobiology of lampreys: Physiological Reviews, v. 59, p. 1007-1077.}"
}

Brain regions, cranial nerves, and sense organs in Muraenolepis microps, an Antarctic gadiform fish, were examined to determine which features could be attributed to a gadiform ancestry and which to habitation of Antarctic waters. We found that the central nervous system and sense organs are well developed, showing neither substantial regression nor hypertrophy. A detailed drawing of the brain and cranial nerves is provided. The rostral position of the olfactory bulbs and telencephalic size and lobation are common for the order. The optic tectum and corpus cerebelli are smaller than in most other gadiforms. The shape of the corpus cerebelli is not distinctive among gadiforms. The lateral line region is moderately well‐developed, but not hypertrophied to the extent seen in deep‐sea gadiforms. As is the case in gadids possessing barbels and elongated pelvic rays, Muraenolepis has well‐developed facial lobes, although these are smaller and more laterally positioned. The vagal lobes are deeply placed in the rhombencephalon and project into the fourth ventricle. The brain of Muraenolepis resembles that of a phyletically derived gadoid, especially a phycid, more than it resembles the brain of a phyletically basal macrourid. Two histological features of the diencephalon of Muraenolepis appear to be unique among gadiforms: a well‐organized thalamic central medial nucleus and subependymal expansions. Muraenolepis has a pure rod retina like many deep‐sea species but lacks the superimposed layers of rod outer segments. The histology of the nonvisual sense organs, especially the olfactory and external taste systems, are well‐developed in Muraenolepis but not hypertrophied. We relate our findings to what is known about neural morphology in other gadiforms and in phyletically distant notothenioids and liparids that are sympatric with Muraenolepis on the Antarctic shelf. The only feature that reflects an Antarctic existence is the diencephalic subependymal expansions, which within notothenioids mirror the habitation of cold waters and have been found in every Antarctic species examined to date. Although the waters of the Antarctic shelf are cold, dark, and deep, brain and sense organ morphology in Muraenolepis are remarkably free of extreme specialization. J. Morphol. 250:34–50, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

@article{doi101002jmor1057,
    author = "Eastman, J. and Lannoo, M.",
    title = "Anatomy and histology of the brain and sense organs of the Antarctic eel cod Muraenolepis microps (Gadiformes; Muraenolepididae)",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology",
    abstract = "Brain regions, cranial nerves, and sense organs in Muraenolepis microps, an Antarctic gadiform fish, were examined to determine which features could be attributed to a gadiform ancestry and which to habitation of Antarctic waters. We found that the central nervous system and sense organs are well developed, showing neither substantial regression nor hypertrophy. A detailed drawing of the brain and cranial nerves is provided. The rostral position of the olfactory bulbs and telencephalic size and lobation are common for the order. The optic tectum and corpus cerebelli are smaller than in most other gadiforms. The shape of the corpus cerebelli is not distinctive among gadiforms. The lateral line region is moderately well‐developed, but not hypertrophied to the extent seen in deep‐sea gadiforms. As is the case in gadids possessing barbels and elongated pelvic rays, Muraenolepis has well‐developed facial lobes, although these are smaller and more laterally positioned. The vagal lobes are deeply placed in the rhombencephalon and project into the fourth ventricle. The brain of Muraenolepis resembles that of a phyletically derived gadoid, especially a phycid, more than it resembles the brain of a phyletically basal macrourid. Two histological features of the diencephalon of Muraenolepis appear to be unique among gadiforms: a well‐organized thalamic central medial nucleus and subependymal expansions. Muraenolepis has a pure rod retina like many deep‐sea species but lacks the superimposed layers of rod outer segments. The histology of the nonvisual sense organs, especially the olfactory and external taste systems, are well‐developed in Muraenolepis but not hypertrophied. We relate our findings to what is known about neural morphology in other gadiforms and in phyletically distant notothenioids and liparids that are sympatric with Muraenolepis on the Antarctic shelf. The only feature that reflects an Antarctic existence is the diencephalic subependymal expansions, which within notothenioids mirror the habitation of cold waters and have been found in every Antarctic species examined to date. Although the waters of the Antarctic shelf are cold, dark, and deep, brain and sense organ morphology in Muraenolepis are remarkably free of extreme specialization. J. Morphol. 250:34–50, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5d4152ff6df4042b315d09d649dce9516b5aa6c2",
    doi = "10.1002/JMOR.1057",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    pages = "34-50",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "19",
    semanticscholar_id = "5d4152ff6df4042b315d09d649dce9516b5aa6c2",
    volume = "250"
}

@incollection{crossref2003central,
    title = "Central nervous system developmentand anatomy",
    year = "2003",
    booktitle = "An Atlas of Fetal Central Nervous System Disease",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3109/9780203490679-9",
    doi = "10.3109/9780203490679-9",
    pages = "18-29"
}

@incollection{pooh2003central,
    author = "Pooh, R",
    title = "Central nervous system development anatomy",
    year = "2003",
    booktitle = "An Atlas of Fetal Central Nervous System Disease",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3109/9780203490679-3",
    doi = "10.3109/9780203490679-3",
    pages = "8-19"
}

Summary We identified a transcription factor of the onecut class in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus that represents an ortholog of the mammalian gene HNF6, the founding member of the onecut class of proteins. The isolated sea urchin gene, named SpOnecut, encodes a protein of 483 amino acids with one cut domain and a homeodomain. Phylogenetic analysis clearly places the sea urchin gene into this family, most closely related to the ascidian onecut gene HNF‐6. Nevertheless, phylogenetic analysis reveals a difficult phylogeny indicating that certain members of the family evolve more rapidly than others and also that the cut domain and homeodomain evolve at a different pace. In fly, worm, ascidian, and teleost fish, the onecut genes isolated so far are exclusively expressed in cells of the central nervous system (CNS), whereas in mammals the two copies of the gene have acquired additional functions in liver and pancreas development. In the sea urchin embryo, expression is first detected in the emerging ciliary band at the late blastula stage. During the gastrula stage, expression is limited to the ciliary band. In the early pluteus stage, SpOnecut is expressed at the apical organ and the elongating arms but continues most prominently in the ciliary band. This is the first gene known that exclusively marks the ciliary band and therein the apical organ in a pluteus larva, whereas chordate orthologs execute essential functions in dorsal CNS development. The significance of this finding for the hypothesis that the ciliary bands and apical organs of the hypothetical “dipleurula”‐like chordate ancestor and the chordate/vertebrate CNS are of common origin is discussed.

@article{doi101111j1525142x200404028x,
    author = "Poustka, A. and Kühn, Alexander and Radosavljevic, V. and Wellenreuther, R. and Lehrach, H. and Panopoulou, G.",
    title = "On the origin of the chordate central nervous system: expression of onecut in the sea urchin embryo",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Evolution \& Development",
    abstract = "Summary We identified a transcription factor of the onecut class in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus that represents an ortholog of the mammalian gene HNF6, the founding member of the onecut class of proteins. The isolated sea urchin gene, named SpOnecut, encodes a protein of 483 amino acids with one cut domain and a homeodomain. Phylogenetic analysis clearly places the sea urchin gene into this family, most closely related to the ascidian onecut gene HNF‐6. Nevertheless, phylogenetic analysis reveals a difficult phylogeny indicating that certain members of the family evolve more rapidly than others and also that the cut domain and homeodomain evolve at a different pace. In fly, worm, ascidian, and teleost fish, the onecut genes isolated so far are exclusively expressed in cells of the central nervous system (CNS), whereas in mammals the two copies of the gene have acquired additional functions in liver and pancreas development. In the sea urchin embryo, expression is first detected in the emerging ciliary band at the late blastula stage. During the gastrula stage, expression is limited to the ciliary band. In the early pluteus stage, SpOnecut is expressed at the apical organ and the elongating arms but continues most prominently in the ciliary band. This is the first gene known that exclusively marks the ciliary band and therein the apical organ in a pluteus larva, whereas chordate orthologs execute essential functions in dorsal CNS development. The significance of this finding for the hypothesis that the ciliary bands and apical organs of the hypothetical “dipleurula”‐like chordate ancestor and the chordate/vertebrate CNS are of common origin is discussed.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/28aba6c1b4df5091e7be9349ce430785d6fb30c4",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1525-142X.2004.04028.x",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "4",
    pages = "227-236",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "56",
    semanticscholar_id = "28aba6c1b4df5091e7be9349ce430785d6fb30c4",
    volume = "6"
}

@misc{crossref2005central,
    title = "Central nervous system - vascular anatomy",
    year = "2005",
    booktitle = "Radiopaedia.org",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.53347/rid-1074",
    doi = "10.53347/rid-1074"
}

@article{castro2006anatomy,
    author = "Castro, Antonio and Becerra, Manuela and Manso, María Jesús and Sherwood, Nancy M. and Anadón, Ramón",
    title = "Anatomy of the Hesse photoreceptor cell axonal system in the central nervous system of amphioxus",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "The Journal of Comparative Neurology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.20783",
    doi = "10.1002/cne.20783",
    number = "1",
    pages = "54-62",
    volume = "494"
}

@article{doi1012019780203647295ch9,
    author = "Bradbury, S. and Carlson, R. and Henry, T. and Padilla, S. and Cowden, J.",
    title = "Toxic Responses of the Fish Nervous System",
    year = "2008",
    booktitle = "The Toxicology of Fishes",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d0c3bb0139314d89a81fc79bb0835ba91b369639",
    doi = "10.1201/9780203647295.ch9",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "417-455",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "45",
    semanticscholar_id = "d0c3bb0139314d89a81fc79bb0835ba91b369639"
}

@incollection{maxwell2013,
    author = "Maxwell, S. Laurans and Brooke, Albright and Ryan, A. Grant",
    title = ". Central Nervous System Anatomy",
    year = "2013",
    booktitle = "Fundamentals of Neuroanesthesia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199755981.003.0001",
    doi = "10.1093/med/9780199755981.003.0001",
    pages = "1-15"
}

@article{doi101353pbm19690023,
    author = "Lubar, J.",
    title = "The Central Nervous System and Fish Behavior (review)",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Perspectives in Biology and Medicine",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e162a7eb08987681518dfa7e09bfe5e9271ca74e",
    doi = "10.1353/PBM.1969.0023",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "3",
    pages = "476-477",
    semanticscholar_id = "e162a7eb08987681518dfa7e09bfe5e9271ca74e",
    volume = "12"
}

Ascidians are marine invertebrate chordates. Their tadpole larvae contain a dorsal tubular nervous system, resulting from the rolling up of a neural plate. Along the anterior–posterior (A‐P) axis, the central nervous system (CNS) is organized into a sensory vesicle, neck, trunk ganglion, and tail nerve cord and consists of approximately only 330 cells, of which around 100 are thought to be neurons. The organization of distinct neuronal cell types and neurotransmitter gene expression within the CNS has been described. The unique developmental mode of ascidians, with a small number of cells and a fixed cell division pattern, allows individual cells to be traced throughout development. This feature has led to the complete documentation of the cell lineages of certain cell types in the CNS. Thus, a step‐by‐step understanding of nervous system development from the initial stages of neural induction to the neurogenesis of individual neurons is a feasible goal. The genetic control of neural fate induction and early neural plate patterning are now well understood. The molecular mechanisms specifying the cholinergic neurons of the trunk ganglion as well as the pigment cells of the sensory organs are also well elucidated. In addition, studies have begun on the morphogenetic processes of neurulation. Remaining challenges include building an embryonic atlas integrating gene expression patterns, cell lineage, and neuronal cell types as well as developing the gene regulatory networks of cell fate specification and integrating them with the genetic control of morphogenesis. WIREs Dev Biol 2016, 5:538–561. doi: 10.1002/wdev.239 This article is categorized under: Gene Expression and Transcriptional Hierarchies > Gene Networks and Genomics Signaling Pathways > Cell Fate Signaling Early Embryonic Development > Development to the Basic Body Plan

@article{hudson2016the,
    author = "Hudson, Clare",
    title = "The central nervous system of ascidian larvae",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "WIREs Developmental Biology",
    abstract = "Ascidians are marine invertebrate chordates. Their tadpole larvae contain a dorsal tubular nervous system, resulting from the rolling up of a neural plate. Along the anterior–posterior (A‐P) axis, the central nervous system (CNS) is organized into a sensory vesicle, neck, trunk ganglion, and tail nerve cord and consists of approximately only 330 cells, of which around 100 are thought to be neurons. The organization of distinct neuronal cell types and neurotransmitter gene expression within the CNS has been described. The unique developmental mode of ascidians, with a small number of cells and a fixed cell division pattern, allows individual cells to be traced throughout development. This feature has led to the complete documentation of the cell lineages of certain cell types in the CNS. Thus, a step‐by‐step understanding of nervous system development from the initial stages of neural induction to the neurogenesis of individual neurons is a feasible goal. The genetic control of neural fate induction and early neural plate patterning are now well understood. The molecular mechanisms specifying the cholinergic neurons of the trunk ganglion as well as the pigment cells of the sensory organs are also well elucidated. In addition, studies have begun on the morphogenetic processes of neurulation. Remaining challenges include building an embryonic atlas integrating gene expression patterns, cell lineage, and neuronal cell types as well as developing the gene regulatory networks of cell fate specification and integrating them with the genetic control of morphogenesis. WIREs Dev Biol 2016, 5:538–561. doi: 10.1002/wdev.239 This article is categorized under: Gene Expression and Transcriptional Hierarchies > Gene Networks and Genomics Signaling Pathways > Cell Fate Signaling Early Embryonic Development > Development to the Basic Body Plan",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/wdev.239",
    doi = "10.1002/wdev.239",
    number = "5",
    pages = "538-561",
    volume = "5"
}

@incollection{crossref2018central,
    title = "Central Nervous System Anatomy",
    year = "2018",
    booktitle = "BASIC Essentials",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108235778.027",
    doi = "10.1017/9781108235778.027",
    pages = "128-134"
}

Our findings highlight the importance of left-right specification pathways not only for proper CNS anatomy, but also for correct synaptic connectivity and behavior.

@article{doi101186s12915021010754,
    author = "Kourakis, Matthew J. and Bostwick, Michaela and Zabriskie, Amanda and Smith, William C.",
    title = "Disruption of left-right axis specification in Ciona induces molecular, cellular, and functional defects in asymmetric brain structures",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "BMC Biology",
    abstract = "Our findings highlight the importance of left-right specification pathways not only for proper CNS anatomy, but also for correct synaptic connectivity and behavior.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1186/s12915-021-01075-4",
    doi = "10.1186/s12915-021-01075-4",
    openalex = "W3179401312",
    references = "doi101016jydbio201610014"
}

@article{s2410978fd995d6ae3b2fed0015bd30f788f135241,
    title = "Download Ebook Vertebrates Comparative Anatomy 6th Edition summitsurvey.4d.com in",
    year = "2022",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/410978fd995d6ae3b2fed0015bd30f788f135241",
    is_oa = "true",
    semanticscholar_id = "410978fd995d6ae3b2fed0015bd30f788f135241"
}

Appendicularia comprises 70 marine, invertebrate, chordate species. Appendicularians play important ecological and evolutionary roles, yet their morphological disparity remains understudied. Most appendicularians are small, develop rapidly, and with a stereotyped cell lineage, leading to the hypothesis that Appendicularia derived progenetically from an ascidian‐like ancestor. Here, we describe the detailed anatomy of the central nervous system of Bathochordaeus stygius, a giant appendicularian from the mesopelagic. We show that the brain consists of a forebrain with on average smaller and more uniform cells and a hindbrain, in which cell shapes and sizes vary to a greater extent. Cell count for the brain was 102. We demonstrate the presence of three paired brain nerves. Brain nerve 1 traces into the epidermis of the upper lip region and consists of several fibers with some supportive bulb cells in its course. Brain nerve 2 innervates oral sensory organs and brain nerve 3 innervates the ciliary ring of the gill slits and lateral epidermis. Brain nerve 3 is asymmetric, with the right nerve consisting of two neurites originating posterior to the left one that contains three neurites. Similarities and differences to the anatomy of the brain of the model species Oikopleura dioica are discussed. We interpret the small number of cells in the brain of B. stygius as an evolutionary trace of miniaturization and conclude that giant appendicularians evolved from a small, progenetic ancestor that secondarily increased in size within Appendicularia.

@article{doi101002jmor21598,
    author = "Zemann, Berit and Le, M. and Sherlock, R. and Baum, D. and Katija, K. and Stach, T.",
    title = "Evolutionary traces of miniaturization in a giant—Comparative anatomy of brain and brain nerves in Bathochordaeus stygius (Tunicata, Appendicularia)",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology",
    abstract = "Appendicularia comprises 70 marine, invertebrate, chordate species. Appendicularians play important ecological and evolutionary roles, yet their morphological disparity remains understudied. Most appendicularians are small, develop rapidly, and with a stereotyped cell lineage, leading to the hypothesis that Appendicularia derived progenetically from an ascidian‐like ancestor. Here, we describe the detailed anatomy of the central nervous system of Bathochordaeus stygius, a giant appendicularian from the mesopelagic. We show that the brain consists of a forebrain with on average smaller and more uniform cells and a hindbrain, in which cell shapes and sizes vary to a greater extent. Cell count for the brain was 102. We demonstrate the presence of three paired brain nerves. Brain nerve 1 traces into the epidermis of the upper lip region and consists of several fibers with some supportive bulb cells in its course. Brain nerve 2 innervates oral sensory organs and brain nerve 3 innervates the ciliary ring of the gill slits and lateral epidermis. Brain nerve 3 is asymmetric, with the right nerve consisting of two neurites originating posterior to the left one that contains three neurites. Similarities and differences to the anatomy of the brain of the model species Oikopleura dioica are discussed. We interpret the small number of cells in the brain of B. stygius as an evolutionary trace of miniaturization and conclude that giant appendicularians evolved from a small, progenetic ancestor that secondarily increased in size within Appendicularia.",
    url = "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/jmor.21598",
    doi = "10.1002/jmor.21598",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "7",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "2",
    semanticscholar_id = "5d386c31ed4f428525c43270d07909a92b6caeaf",
    volume = "284"
}

@incollection{john2025central,
    author = "John, Kenneth and Flaherty, Devon and Gal, Jonathan",
    title = "Central Nervous System: Anatomy",
    year = "2025",
    booktitle = "BASIC Essentials",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009334792.027",
    doi = "10.1017/9781009334792.027",
    pages = "141-146"
}