Pedogenesis

@article{black1886the,
    author = "Black, W. J.",
    title = "The “Alaska Glacier.”",
    year = "1886",
    journal = "Geological Magazine",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0016756800190211",
    doi = "10.1017/s0016756800190211",
    number = "3",
    pages = "140-141",
    volume = "3"
}

@article{baldwin1892muir,
    author = "Baldwin, S. P.",
    title = "Muir Glacier, Alaska",
    year = "1892",
    journal = "Scientific American",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican04091892-227",
    doi = "10.1038/scientificamerican04091892-227",
    number = "15",
    pages = "227-228",
    volume = "66"
}

@article{crocker1952soil1,
    author = "Crocker, R. L",
    title = "Soil genesis and the pedogenic factors",
    year = "1952",
    journal = "Quarterly Review of Biology, v. 27, p. 139-168",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Crocker, R. L., 1952, Soil genesis and the pedogenic factors: Quarterly Review of Biology, v. 27, p. 139-168.}"
}

@article{crocker1955soil,
    author = "Crocker, Robert L. and Major, Jack",
    title = "Soil Development in Relation to Vegetation and Surface Age at Glacier Bay, Alaska",
    year = "1955",
    journal = "The Journal of Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2257005",
    doi = "10.2307/2257005",
    number = "2",
    pages = "427",
    volume = "43"
}

@article{crocker1955soil2,
    author = "Crocker, R. and Major, J",
    title = "Soil development in relation to vegetation and surface age at Glacier Bay, Alaska",
    year = "1955",
    journal = "Journal of Ecology, v. 43, p. 427-448",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Crocker, R., and Major, J., 1955, Soil development in relation to vegetation and surface age at Glacier Bay, Alaska: Journal of Ecology, v. 43, p. 427-448.}"
}

An unusual opportunity for the study of glaciers in the process of development is afforded in Katmaicaldera in south-western Alaska. A violent eruption in 1912 destroyed the summit of glacier-clad Mount Katmai, creating a caldera 4 km. wide and 800 m. deep. Ice cliffs produced by beheading of the glaciers have since thinned and shrunk away from the rim of the caldera, except in the south-west. There, local reversal of direction of movement has resulted in an ice fall which descends part way down the crater wall. In the past thirty years two small glaciers have formed, near 1525 m. above sea level, within the caldera on large masses of slumped wall-rock below the north and south rims respectively. Elsewhere the sheer walls of the crater descend so steeply to the level of the caldera lake that permanent snowbanks cannot accumulate. The lake, which continues to rise at a rate of more than five meters per year, is at present the primary deterring factor in glacier development in the caldera.

@article{muller1957incipient,
    author = "Muller, E. H. and Coulter, H. W.",
    title = "Incipient Glacier Development within Katmai Caldera, Alaska",
    year = "1957",
    journal = "Journal of Glaciology",
    abstract = "An unusual opportunity for the study of glaciers in the process of development is afforded in Katmaicaldera in south-western Alaska. A violent eruption in 1912 destroyed the summit of glacier-clad Mount Katmai, creating a caldera 4 km. wide and 800 m. deep. Ice cliffs produced by beheading of the glaciers have since thinned and shrunk away from the rim of the caldera, except in the south-west. There, local reversal of direction of movement has resulted in an ice fall which descends part way down the crater wall. In the past thirty years two small glaciers have formed, near 1525 m. above sea level, within the caldera on large masses of slumped wall-rock below the north and south rims respectively. Elsewhere the sheer walls of the crater descend so steeply to the level of the caldera lake that permanent snowbanks cannot accumulate. The lake, which continues to rise at a rate of more than five meters per year, is at present the primary deterring factor in glacier development in the caldera.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3189/s0022143000024643",
    doi = "10.3189/s0022143000024643",
    number = "21",
    pages = "13-17",
    volume = "3"
}

@article{psharp1958malaspina,
    author = "P. SHARP, ROBERT",
    title = "MALASPINA GLACIER, ALASKA",
    year = "1958",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1958)69[617:mga]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1958)69[617:mga]2.0.co;2",
    number = "6",
    pages = "617",
    volume = "69"
}

@article{viereck1966plant,
    author = "Viereck, Leslie A.",
    title = "Plant Succession and Soil Development on Gravel Outwash of the Muldrow Glacier, Alaska",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Ecological Monographs",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1942416",
    doi = "10.2307/1942416",
    number = "3",
    pages = "181-199",
    volume = "36"
}

Eighteen glacier forelands, with lichenometrically dated terminal moraine sequences, provide chronosequences for an investigation of soil development. The investigation focuses on properties of the soils' organic phases (pH, organic matter content, cation exchange capacity, and profile depth), which generally change rapidly in alpine soils. The results indicate decreasing pH and increasing organic matter content and cation exchange capacity as the soils increase in depth over the 231-yr sequences. The rates of change of the soil properties show wide variations within the area of the Jotunheim Mountains and the environs of the Jostedalsbreen ice cap; in some cases the variations are more than an order of magnitude. The rates of change of cation exchange capacity and depth are strongly related to the prevailing climate, whereas rates of pH and organic matter content changes appear to be unrelated to the climatic parameters considered.

@article{doi10108000040851198812002649,
    author = "Messer, A.",
    title = "Regional Variations in Rates of Pedogenesis and the Influence of Climatic Factors on Moraine Chronosequences, Southern Norway",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Arctic and Alpine Research",
    abstract = "Eighteen glacier forelands, with lichenometrically dated terminal moraine sequences, provide chronosequences for an investigation of soil development. The investigation focuses on properties of the soils' organic phases (pH, organic matter content, cation exchange capacity, and profile depth), which generally change rapidly in alpine soils. The results indicate decreasing pH and increasing organic matter content and cation exchange capacity as the soils increase in depth over the 231-yr sequences. The rates of change of the soil properties show wide variations within the area of the Jotunheim Mountains and the environs of the Jostedalsbreen ice cap; in some cases the variations are more than an order of magnitude. The rates of change of cation exchange capacity and depth are strongly related to the prevailing climate, whereas rates of pH and organic matter content changes appear to be unrelated to the climatic parameters considered.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f38a0da05881fa7e8bd790dcf42e683358d1ef9b",
    doi = "10.1080/00040851.1988.12002649",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    pages = "31-39",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "66",
    semanticscholar_id = "f38a0da05881fa7e8bd790dcf42e683358d1ef9b",
    volume = "20"
}

@article{doi10108002723646198810642339,
    author = "James, L.",
    title = "RATES OF ORGANIC CARBON ACCUMULATION IN YOUNG MINERAL SOILS NEAR BURROUGHS GLACIER, GLACIER BAY, ALASKA",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Physical Geography",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/17f0905d37832480278febbd632f1e7f91401996",
    doi = "10.1080/02723646.1988.10642339",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    pages = "50-70",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "15",
    semanticscholar_id = "17f0905d37832480278febbd632f1e7f91401996",
    volume = "9"
}

@article{alexander1996soil,
    author = "Alexander, E.B. and Burt, R.",
    title = "Soil development on moraines of Mendenhall Glacier, southeast Alaska. 1. The moraines and soil morphology",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Geoderma",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(96)00021-3",
    doi = "10.1016/0016-7061(96)00021-3",
    number = "1-2",
    pages = "1-17",
    volume = "72"
}

@article{burt1996soil,
    author = "Burt, R. and Alexander, E.B.",
    title = "Soil development on moraines of Mendenhall Glacier, southeast Alaska. 2. Chemical transformations and soil micromorphology",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Geoderma",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(96)00022-5",
    doi = "10.1016/0016-7061(96)00022-5",
    number = "1-2",
    pages = "19-36",
    volume = "72"
}

This lesson explores the five major factors of soil formation—(1) climate, (2) organisms, (3) time, (4) topography, and (5) parent material—and their influence in forming soil. The distinction between active and passive factors, moisture and temperature regimes, organism and topographic influences, and parent material sources are described.

@article{ippolito2009soil,
    author = "Ippolito, James and Mamo, Martha and Kettler, Timothy and Reuter, Ronald and McCallister, Dennis and Morner, Patricia and Soester, Jody",
    title = "Soil Genesis and Development, Lesson 3: Soil Forming Factors",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education",
    abstract = "This lesson explores the five major factors of soil formation—(1) climate, (2) organisms, (3) time, (4) topography, and (5) parent material—and their influence in forming soil. The distinction between active and passive factors, moisture and temperature regimes, organism and topographic influences, and parent material sources are described.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4195/jnrlse.2007.0035w",
    doi = "10.4195/jnrlse.2007.0035w",
    number = "1",
    pages = "239-239",
    volume = "38"
}

@incollection{feller2010the,
    author = "Feller, Christian and Chapuis-Lardy, Lydie and Ugolini, Fiorenzo",
    title = "The Representation of Soil in the Western Art: From Genesis to Pedogenesis",
    year = "2010",
    booktitle = "Soil and Culture",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2960-7\_1",
    doi = "10.1007/978-90-481-2960-7\_1",
    pages = "3-21"
}

@article{doi101007s1053301297913,
    author = "Schurig, C. and Smittenberg, R. and Berger, J. and Kraft, F. and Woche, S. and Goebel, Marc-O and Heipieper, H. and Miltner, A. and Kaestner, M.",
    title = "Microbial cell-envelope fragments and the formation of soil organic matter: a case study from a glacier forefield",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Biogeochemistry",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/85cf346eedd5e18715dd685768d8dfd21f6147a6",
    doi = "10.1007/s10533-012-9791-3",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1-3",
    pages = "595-612",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "91",
    semanticscholar_id = "85cf346eedd5e18715dd685768d8dfd21f6147a6",
    volume = "113"
}

@article{doi101016jgeomorph201507031,
    author = "Cocco, S. and Brecciaroli, Giorgia and Agnelli, A. and Weindorf, D. and Corti, G.",
    title = "Soil genesis and evolution on calanchi (badland-like landform) of central Italy",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Geomorphology",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/aa2244fc0cf00e69890260cbfd27185181b15b46",
    doi = "10.1016/J.GEOMORPH.2015.07.031",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "33-46",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "19",
    semanticscholar_id = "aa2244fc0cf00e69890260cbfd27185181b15b46",
    volume = "248"
}

@article{doi101016jsoilbio201712019,
    author = "Jiang, Yonglei and Lei, Y. and Yang, Yan and Korpelainen, H. and Niinemets, Ü. and Li, Chunyang",
    title = "Divergent assemblage patterns and driving forces for bacterial and fungal communities along a glacier forefield chronosequence",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Soil Biology \& Biochemistry",
    url = "http://manuscript.elsevier.com/S0038071717307009/pdf/S0038071717307009.pdf",
    doi = "10.1016/J.SOILBIO.2017.12.019",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "207-216",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "123",
    semanticscholar_id = "8c2de8d502a4f9c3149abc58dd311726fad1fb0f",
    volume = "118"
}

@article{doi101134s1064229322020028,
    author = "Alexandrovskiy, A. and Chendev, Y. and Yurtaev, A.",
    title = "Soils with the Second Humus Horizon, Paleochernozems, and the History of Pedogenesis at the Border between Forest and Steppe Areas",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Eurasian Soil Science",
    url = "http://dspace.bsu.edu.ru/bitstream/123456789/52331/1/Alexandrovskiy\_Soils\_22.pdf",
    doi = "10.1134/S1064229322020028",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "2",
    pages = "127-146",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "7",
    semanticscholar_id = "72b64881d680eb5d858cc0cb3cdd32b5112e70b6",
    volume = "55"
}

@article{doi103103s0147687422030024,
    author = "Basevich, V. F.",
    title = "Heterogeneity of Podzolic Soils: Genesis, Methodological and Methogical Aspects of Study (Review)",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Moscow University Soil Science Bulletin",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5254090fa11ce2ebd8b5411c33590afb0f28641a",
    doi = "10.3103/S0147687422030024",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "3",
    pages = "128-136",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "1",
    semanticscholar_id = "5254090fa11ce2ebd8b5411c33590afb0f28641a",
    volume = "77"
}

Polder soils develop from oceanic and lacustrine sediments covered with seawater, brackish water, and freshwater after artificial drainage. Because there are several concerns regarding the agricultural use of polder soils, soil genesis and properties have been considerably surveyed, mainly focusing on problematic soils developed from fine sediments. Although sediments have a wide range of particle size distributions due to different sedimentary conditions, particle size of parent materials have not been well addressed to understand the soil developmental process. In this study, Japanese polders with different reclamation ages and sedimentary conditions were surveyed to clarify the soil formation process and factors affecting pedogenesis. Soil samples were collected from 15 soil profiles in six Japanese polders under different land use types. Sedimentary conditions of polders were evaluated from particle size distributions using the hydrodynamic classification proposed by Pejrup (The triangular diagram used for classification of estuarine sediments: a new approach. Tide-influenced Sediment Environ Facies, pp 289–300, 1988). The major soil-forming factors of polders were extracted by principal component analysis (PCA) using general soil properties. Brackish lake and inner bay polders were characterized by calm hydrodynamic conditions comprising fine particles. Two polders reclaimed from a shallow inland sea were characterized by violent hydrodynamic conditions. Sandy sediments were also characteristic of immature soils reclaimed from a freshwater lake and an estuarine tidal flat. Soils on polders developed under calm hydrodynamic conditions enabled the accumulation of high total carbon content. The soil-forming process in the brackish bay oxidized pyrite, leading to an acidic soil reaction. Conversely, soils developed from sandy sediments were characterized by low iron content. The PCA extracted two factors explained by particle size and soil reaction relating to acidification and salt leaching. Polder soils can be mainly discriminated by their particle size distributions, which are characterized by hydrodynamics under the sedimentary conditions, and the polder soil development is affected by water management in land uses after artificial drainage.

@article{doi101007s11368024038319,
    author = "Nishikura, Seri and Kawahigashi, Masayuki",
    title = "Effect of particle size distribution of sediments on development of polder soils in Japan",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Journal of Soils and Sediments",
    abstract = "Polder soils develop from oceanic and lacustrine sediments covered with seawater, brackish water, and freshwater after artificial drainage. Because there are several concerns regarding the agricultural use of polder soils, soil genesis and properties have been considerably surveyed, mainly focusing on problematic soils developed from fine sediments. Although sediments have a wide range of particle size distributions due to different sedimentary conditions, particle size of parent materials have not been well addressed to understand the soil developmental process. In this study, Japanese polders with different reclamation ages and sedimentary conditions were surveyed to clarify the soil formation process and factors affecting pedogenesis. Soil samples were collected from 15 soil profiles in six Japanese polders under different land use types. Sedimentary conditions of polders were evaluated from particle size distributions using the hydrodynamic classification proposed by Pejrup (The triangular diagram used for classification of estuarine sediments: a new approach. Tide-influenced Sediment Environ Facies, pp 289–300, 1988). The major soil-forming factors of polders were extracted by principal component analysis (PCA) using general soil properties. Brackish lake and inner bay polders were characterized by calm hydrodynamic conditions comprising fine particles. Two polders reclaimed from a shallow inland sea were characterized by violent hydrodynamic conditions. Sandy sediments were also characteristic of immature soils reclaimed from a freshwater lake and an estuarine tidal flat. Soils on polders developed under calm hydrodynamic conditions enabled the accumulation of high total carbon content. The soil-forming process in the brackish bay oxidized pyrite, leading to an acidic soil reaction. Conversely, soils developed from sandy sediments were characterized by low iron content. The PCA extracted two factors explained by particle size and soil reaction relating to acidification and salt leaching. Polder soils can be mainly discriminated by their particle size distributions, which are characterized by hydrodynamics under the sedimentary conditions, and the polder soil development is affected by water management in land uses after artificial drainage.",
    url = "https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11368-024-03831-9.pdf",
    doi = "10.1007/s11368-024-03831-9",
    is_oa = "true",
    semanticscholar_id = "fcf06175cd1057a62918f0c6b0325a3cb4480654"
}

The rapid accumulation of bioavailable phosphorus (Bio‐P) promotes ecosystem development at the beginning of pedogenesis in the Hailuogou Glacier foreland. However, the role of microorganisms in Bio‐P accumulation during early pedogenesis remains unclear. Using the Hailuogou Glacier foreland on Gongga Mountain as a natural laboratory, microbial community assembly, co‐occurrence networks, and phosphorus cycling genes (PCGs) were examined across four successional stages, from bare land to moss crust. The results showed that bacteria were dominant at all stages. Microbial diversity and evenness increased gradually, whereas the topological properties of the microbial network initially increased and then decreased. Community assembly is mainly driven by deterministic processes under environmental pressures. At the beginning of pedogenesis, microorganisms adapt to scarce Bio‐P conditions by enhancing the functional potential of key PCGs (e.g., pqqE, gcd, phoD, and 3‐Phytase), which mediate mineral phosphorus solubilization and organic phosphorus mineralization. Tight cooperative network structures within microbial communities and dominant microbial taxa were the major factors accelerating Bio‐P. Thus, it can be concluded that microorganisms promote Bio‐P accumulation at the beginning of pedogenesis by regulating PCGs and typical microbial community construction. These findings provide new insights into the mechanisms by which microbial communities regulate phosphorus dynamics during pedogenesis, particularly on newly exposed land resulting from global change in alpine and polar regions.

@article{doi101111gcb70419,
    author = "Xu, Mingyang and Wu, Yanhong and Bing, Haijan and Luo, Chaoyi and Zhu, He and He, Junbo",
    title = "Microorganisms Promote Soil Phosphorus Bioavailability at the Beginning of Pedogenesis",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Global Change Biology",
    abstract = "The rapid accumulation of bioavailable phosphorus (Bio‐P) promotes ecosystem development at the beginning of pedogenesis in the Hailuogou Glacier foreland. However, the role of microorganisms in Bio‐P accumulation during early pedogenesis remains unclear. Using the Hailuogou Glacier foreland on Gongga Mountain as a natural laboratory, microbial community assembly, co‐occurrence networks, and phosphorus cycling genes (PCGs) were examined across four successional stages, from bare land to moss crust. The results showed that bacteria were dominant at all stages. Microbial diversity and evenness increased gradually, whereas the topological properties of the microbial network initially increased and then decreased. Community assembly is mainly driven by deterministic processes under environmental pressures. At the beginning of pedogenesis, microorganisms adapt to scarce Bio‐P conditions by enhancing the functional potential of key PCGs (e.g., pqqE, gcd, phoD, and 3‐Phytase), which mediate mineral phosphorus solubilization and organic phosphorus mineralization. Tight cooperative network structures within microbial communities and dominant microbial taxa were the major factors accelerating Bio‐P. Thus, it can be concluded that microorganisms promote Bio‐P accumulation at the beginning of pedogenesis by regulating PCGs and typical microbial community construction. These findings provide new insights into the mechanisms by which microbial communities regulate phosphorus dynamics during pedogenesis, particularly on newly exposed land resulting from global change in alpine and polar regions.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/fcc36e3e31a9055e5175bbeae8de5edbc49f310d",
    doi = "10.1111/gcb.70419",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "8",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "5",
    semanticscholar_id = "fcc36e3e31a9055e5175bbeae8de5edbc49f310d",
    volume = "31"
}

The Lutak Spur (LS) is a prominent deltaic landform near Haines, Alaska, formed during the retreat of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet from the Last Glacial Maximum. This study evaluates its geologic evolution, soil development, and slope stability response to a December 2020 atmospheric river (AR) event that triggered multiple landslides. We posit that LS formed as an ice-contact kame delta at the margin of a retreating valley glacier. Post-glacial isostatic rebound exposed the LS surface, allowing Spodosols with iron-cemented (Fe-cemented) horizons to develop beneath forest vegetation. We used field observations, laboratory testing, surface drainage mapping, and modeling to evaluate tree throw as a possible landslide trigger. Direct shear testing indicated that Fe-cemented layers contribute cohesion to near-surface soils. On the basis of measured precipitation over a 2-day period and NOAA Atlas 14 precipitation frequency estimates, the December 2020 AR event approached the intensity of a 1,000-year storm. Hydrologic modeling indicated that peak discharges were approximately three times greater than those of a modeled 100-year storm. The SEEP/W modeling demonstrated elevated groundwater levels and pore water pressures (PWP) from infiltration. The SLOPE/W modeling indicated dry slopes were stable, but removal of the Fe-cemented layer reduced the factor of safety (FS); under saturated conditions, the FS dropped below 1.0. Field evidence, resident observations, and modeling support the hypothesis that tree throw along the slope crest disrupted the Fe-cemented layer, triggering failures. These results suggest that extreme precipitation, combined with vegetation disturbance, reduced slope stability through transient PWP increases and the loss of near-surface strength.

@article{doi1021663eegd2500043,
    author = "Kalev, Christopher and Darrow, M.",
    title = "Tree Throws, Spodosols, and Sand Flows: Analyzing Sand Flow Slides and Their Triggers , Haines, Alaska",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Environmental \& Engineering Geoscience",
    abstract = "The Lutak Spur (LS) is a prominent deltaic landform near Haines, Alaska, formed during the retreat of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet from the Last Glacial Maximum. This study evaluates its geologic evolution, soil development, and slope stability response to a December 2020 atmospheric river (AR) event that triggered multiple landslides. We posit that LS formed as an ice-contact kame delta at the margin of a retreating valley glacier. Post-glacial isostatic rebound exposed the LS surface, allowing Spodosols with iron-cemented (Fe-cemented) horizons to develop beneath forest vegetation. We used field observations, laboratory testing, surface drainage mapping, and modeling to evaluate tree throw as a possible landslide trigger. Direct shear testing indicated that Fe-cemented layers contribute cohesion to near-surface soils. On the basis of measured precipitation over a 2-day period and NOAA Atlas 14 precipitation frequency estimates, the December 2020 AR event approached the intensity of a 1,000-year storm. Hydrologic modeling indicated that peak discharges were approximately three times greater than those of a modeled 100-year storm. The SEEP/W modeling demonstrated elevated groundwater levels and pore water pressures (PWP) from infiltration. The SLOPE/W modeling indicated dry slopes were stable, but removal of the Fe-cemented layer reduced the factor of safety (FS); under saturated conditions, the FS dropped below 1.0. Field evidence, resident observations, and modeling support the hypothesis that tree throw along the slope crest disrupted the Fe-cemented layer, triggering failures. These results suggest that extreme precipitation, combined with vegetation disturbance, reduced slope stability through transient PWP increases and the loss of near-surface strength.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1e83bf1afdeed756e6994e2b4b142143e24a7315",
    doi = "10.21663/eeg-d-25-00043",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    pages = "1-20",
    semanticscholar_id = "1e83bf1afdeed756e6994e2b4b142143e24a7315",
    volume = "32"
}