Physiography

@misc{fenneman1931physiography1,
    author = "Fenneman, N. M",
    title = "Physiography of the Western United States",
    year = "1931",
    howpublished = "New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 534 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Fenneman, N. M., 1931, Physiography of the Western United States: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 534 p.}"
}

@article{paul1988physiological2,
    author = "Paul, G. S",
    title = "Physiological, migratorial, climatological, geophysical, survival and evolutionary implications of polar dinosaurs",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Journal of Paleontology, v. 62, p. 640-652",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Paul, G. S., 1988, Physiological, migratorial, climatological, geophysical, survival and evolutionary implications of polar dinosaurs: Journal of Paleontology, v. 62, p. 640-652.}"
}

Most recent studies of dinosaur phylogeny have concentrated on theropods and ornithischians. As a result, the evolutionary relationships of sauropod dinosaurs are poorly understood. In this paper previous studies of sauropod phylogeny are reviewed and contrasted with the results of a recent cladistic analysis. This analysis forms the basis for a reconstruction of sauropod phylogeny. Sauropods diverged from other dinosaurs at some time in the Upper Triassic, but a large part of their early history is totally unknown. Vulcanodonis currently the most primitive sauropod. Many, but perhaps not all, of the Jurassic Chinese sauropods form a monophyletic radiation (the Euhelopodidae) which may reflect the geographic isolation of China during the Lower Jurassic. Members of the Euhelopodidae, such as Mamenchisaurus, are not considered to be closely related to the Diplodocidae. ‘Forked’ chevrons, which have played such an important role in previous studies of sauropod phylogeny, are here considered to have evolved twice within the Sauropoda. This convergence may reflect a correlation between chevron shape and the use of the tail as a weapon within these two sauropod families. The ‘Neosauropoda’ (sister group to the Euhelopodidae) contains the Brachiosauridae, Camarasauridae and the new superfamilies Titanosauroidea and Diplodocoidea. The Cetiosauridae (here defined in a rather restricted sense) is also provisionally included within the Neosauropoda, but may be removed in future studies. The enigmatic Upper Cretaceous sauropod, Opisthocoelicaudia, is thought to be the sister taxon to the Titanosauridae and not a camarasaurid as previously suggested. The Diplodocoidea contains two well established families, the Dicraeosauridae and Diplodocidae, and the new family Nemegtosauridae. Finally, an overview of sauropod phylogeny is compared with recently published palaeogeographic reconstructions. There are many difficulties associated with the analysis of sauropod biogeographic distribution. Nevertheless, some aspects of sauropod phylogeny may be linked to the break-up of Laurasia and Gondwanaland during the Jurassic and Cretaceous.

@article{upchurch1995the,
    author = "Upchurch, Paul",
    title = "The evolutionary history of sauropod dinosaurs",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Most recent studies of dinosaur phylogeny have concentrated on theropods and ornithischians. As a result, the evolutionary relationships of sauropod dinosaurs are poorly understood. In this paper previous studies of sauropod phylogeny are reviewed and contrasted with the results of a recent cladistic analysis. This analysis forms the basis for a reconstruction of sauropod phylogeny. Sauropods diverged from other dinosaurs at some time in the Upper Triassic, but a large part of their early history is totally unknown. Vulcanodonis currently the most primitive sauropod. Many, but perhaps not all, of the Jurassic Chinese sauropods form a monophyletic radiation (the Euhelopodidae) which may reflect the geographic isolation of China during the Lower Jurassic. Members of the Euhelopodidae, such as Mamenchisaurus, are not considered to be closely related to the Diplodocidae. ‘Forked’ chevrons, which have played such an important role in previous studies of sauropod phylogeny, are here considered to have evolved twice within the Sauropoda. This convergence may reflect a correlation between chevron shape and the use of the tail as a weapon within these two sauropod families. The ‘Neosauropoda’ (sister group to the Euhelopodidae) contains the Brachiosauridae, Camarasauridae and the new superfamilies Titanosauroidea and Diplodocoidea. The Cetiosauridae (here defined in a rather restricted sense) is also provisionally included within the Neosauropoda, but may be removed in future studies. The enigmatic Upper Cretaceous sauropod, Opisthocoelicaudia, is thought to be the sister taxon to the Titanosauridae and not a camarasaurid as previously suggested. The Diplodocoidea contains two well established families, the Dicraeosauridae and Diplodocidae, and the new family Nemegtosauridae. Finally, an overview of sauropod phylogeny is compared with recently published palaeogeographic reconstructions. There are many difficulties associated with the analysis of sauropod biogeographic distribution. Nevertheless, some aspects of sauropod phylogeny may be linked to the break-up of Laurasia and Gondwanaland during the Jurassic and Cretaceous.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1995.0125",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1995.0125",
    number = "1330",
    pages = "365-390",
    volume = "349"
}

@incollection{crossref2000physiography,
    title = "Physiography",
    year = "2000",
    booktitle = "Practical Handbook of Marine Science, Third Edition",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420038484.ch1",
    doi = "10.1201/9781420038484.ch1",
    pages = "1-44"
}

@article{chiappe2009downsized,
    author = "Chiappe, Luis M.",
    title = "Downsized Dinosaurs: The Evolutionary Transition to Modern Birds",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Evolution: Education and Outreach",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s12052-009-0133-4",
    doi = "10.1007/s12052-009-0133-4",
    number = "2",
    pages = "248-256",
    volume = "2"
}

An isolated anterior caudal vertebra from the Qingshan (= Ch'ing shan) Formation (Early Cretaceous) of Shandong Province, China, is redescribed and shown to be an advanced diplodocid sauropod. This specimen possesses several derived character states that are typically observed in advanced diplodocoids or diplodocids, including the following: a mildly procoelous centrum; a deep pit‐like pneumatic fossa immediately below the caudal rib; wing‐ or fan‐shaped caudal ribs; and complex lamination of the neural spine. The neural spine is apomorphically short and the centrum is short relative to its height compared to those of other diplodocids, which, when coupled with the specimen’s unique geographical location and stratigraphical age, suggests that it probably represents a new taxon. This caudal vertebra provides the first convincing evidence that diplodocids were present in Asia, perhaps as a result of the dispersal of neosauropod lineages from Europe and/or North America during the Early Cretaceous. The discovery of a member of the Diplodocidae in the Early Cretaceous also indicates that this clade did not become extinct at the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary as previously supposed.

@article{upchurch2009the,
    author = "UPCHURCH, PAUL and MANNION, PHILIP D.",
    title = "The first diplodocid from Asia and its implications for the evolutionary history of sauropod dinosaurs",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Palaeontology",
    abstract = "An isolated anterior caudal vertebra from the Qingshan (= Ch'ing shan) Formation (Early Cretaceous) of Shandong Province, China, is redescribed and shown to be an advanced diplodocid sauropod. This specimen possesses several derived character states that are typically observed in advanced diplodocoids or diplodocids, including the following: a mildly procoelous centrum; a deep pit‐like pneumatic fossa immediately below the caudal rib; wing‐ or fan‐shaped caudal ribs; and complex lamination of the neural spine. The neural spine is apomorphically short and the centrum is short relative to its height compared to those of other diplodocids, which, when coupled with the specimen’s unique geographical location and stratigraphical age, suggests that it probably represents a new taxon. This caudal vertebra provides the first convincing evidence that diplodocids were present in Asia, perhaps as a result of the dispersal of neosauropod lineages from Europe and/or North America during the Early Cretaceous. The discovery of a member of the Diplodocidae in the Early Cretaceous also indicates that this clade did not become extinct at the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary as previously supposed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2009.00909.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1475-4983.2009.00909.x",
    number = "6",
    pages = "1195-1207",
    volume = "52"
}

@article{crossref2011living,
    title = "Living dinosaurs: the evolutionary history of modern birds",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.49-1466",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.49-1466",
    number = "03",
    pages = "49-1466-49-1466",
    volume = "49"
}

@article{witze2015first,
    author = "Witze, Alexandra",
    title = "First dinosaurs arose in an evolutionary eye-blink",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2015.18953",
    doi = "10.1038/nature.2015.18953"
}

Tyrannosauroids—the group of carnivores including Tyrannosaurs rex —are some of the most familiar dinosaurs of all. A surge of recent discoveries has helped clarify some aspects of their evolution, but competing phylogenetic hypotheses raise questions about their relationships, biogeography and fossil record quality. We present a new phylogenetic dataset, which merges published datasets and incorporates recently discovered taxa. We analyze it with parsimony and, for the first time for a tyrannosauroid dataset, Bayesian techniques. The parsimony and Bayesian results are highly congruent and provide a framework for interpreting the biogeography and evolutionary history of tyrannosauroids. Our phylogenies illustrate that the body plan of the colossal species evolved piecemeal, imply no clear division between northern and southern species in western North America as had been argued and suggest that T. rex may have been an Asian migrant to North America. Over-reliance on cranial shape characters may explain why published parsimony studies have diverged and filling three major gaps in the fossil record holds the most promise for future work.

@article{brusatte2016the,
    author = "Brusatte, Stephen L. and Carr, Thomas D.",
    title = "The phylogeny and evolutionary history of tyrannosauroid dinosaurs",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Scientific Reports",
    abstract = "Tyrannosauroids—the group of carnivores including Tyrannosaurs rex —are some of the most familiar dinosaurs of all. A surge of recent discoveries has helped clarify some aspects of their evolution, but competing phylogenetic hypotheses raise questions about their relationships, biogeography and fossil record quality. We present a new phylogenetic dataset, which merges published datasets and incorporates recently discovered taxa. We analyze it with parsimony and, for the first time for a tyrannosauroid dataset, Bayesian techniques. The parsimony and Bayesian results are highly congruent and provide a framework for interpreting the biogeography and evolutionary history of tyrannosauroids. Our phylogenies illustrate that the body plan of the colossal species evolved piecemeal, imply no clear division between northern and southern species in western North America as had been argued and suggest that T. rex may have been an Asian migrant to North America. Over-reliance on cranial shape characters may explain why published parsimony studies have diverged and filling three major gaps in the fossil record holds the most promise for future work.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/srep20252",
    doi = "10.1038/srep20252",
    number = "1",
    volume = "6"
}

This chapter focuses on dinosaurs as a case study for examining the macroevolutionary processes of adaptive radiation and mass extinction. Considering the rise of dinosaurs allows us to examine the role of both key adaptations and chance in diversification, while considering their fall prompts us to examine our ability to resolve events and determine cause and effect in deep time. The study of fossils sheds light on physiology, locomotion, behaviour, and ecology of extinct species. The diversification of dinosaurs may have been driven by key adaptations, such as upright gait and fast metabolism, which allowed them to exploit a wide range of niches, or it may have been triggered by opportunity through the extinction of other reptile groups. Given that vertebrate fossils are rare, and biased in terms of location, taxa, and time period, there is some uncertainty over the timing and nature of dinosaur extinctions.

@incollection{bromham2019were,
    author = "Bromham, Lindell and Cardillo, Marcel",
    title = "Were dinosaurs evolutionary failures?",
    year = "2019",
    booktitle = "Origins of Biodiversity",
    abstract = "This chapter focuses on dinosaurs as a case study for examining the macroevolutionary processes of adaptive radiation and mass extinction. Considering the rise of dinosaurs allows us to examine the role of both key adaptations and chance in diversification, while considering their fall prompts us to examine our ability to resolve events and determine cause and effect in deep time. The study of fossils sheds light on physiology, locomotion, behaviour, and ecology of extinct species. The diversification of dinosaurs may have been driven by key adaptations, such as upright gait and fast metabolism, which allowed them to exploit a wide range of niches, or it may have been triggered by opportunity through the extinction of other reptile groups. Given that vertebrate fossils are rare, and biased in terms of location, taxa, and time period, there is some uncertainty over the timing and nature of dinosaur extinctions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/hesc/9780199608713.003.0005",
    doi = "10.1093/hesc/9780199608713.003.0005"
}

Any assessment of whether or not Saccharum species are native or introduced in New Guinea require an evolutionary (in a geological sense), geophysical and climatological assessment of the island. Like many of the land masses circling the Pacific (in the volcanically active region known as the ‘ring of fire’) New Guinea is geologically young, with the island in its modern form not pre-dating 2 Ma. Novel modelling of the 74 ka youngest Toba supereruption indicates a potential extinction level tsunami and loss of habitat. The late Pleistocene megafaunal mass extinction and the last glacial maximum (33–16 ka) are two global effects that would have significantly altered the flora on New Guinea; though the implications of these events on New Guinea have not previously been studied. Even if the genus Saccharum was established on the island during pre-historic times the consequences of Toba and other global climate change events means that it would have been eliminated from New Guinea and would have had to be re-introduced during the period of human colonization. Indeed, given the evolution of Saccharum ’s immediate ancestors in Africa and Indochina it is most parsimonious to conclude that it was never native to New Guinea, but was introduced by humans relatively recently. Little work has been done on palaeotsunami evidence and ancient tsunami modelling in New Guinea. However, the recent recognition that the Aitape skull (dating to about 6 ka) may have been the victim of a tsunami (Goff et al. 2017) show that, in the past, tsunami have pen etrated significantly (about 10 km in this case) into the interior of the island to have a profound effect on biodiversity. This tsunami would have left the north coast of the island impoverished of plant life for several decades after.

@misc{evans2020a,
    author = "Evans, Dyfed Lloyd",
    title = "A Geophysical and Climatological Assessment of New Guinea — Implications for the Origins of Saccharum",
    year = "2020",
    abstract = "Any assessment of whether or not Saccharum species are native or introduced in New Guinea require an evolutionary (in a geological sense), geophysical and climatological assessment of the island. Like many of the land masses circling the Pacific (in the volcanically active region known as the ‘ring of fire’) New Guinea is geologically young, with the island in its modern form not pre-dating 2 Ma. Novel modelling of the 74 ka youngest Toba supereruption indicates a potential extinction level tsunami and loss of habitat. The late Pleistocene megafaunal mass extinction and the last glacial maximum (33–16 ka) are two global effects that would have significantly altered the flora on New Guinea; though the implications of these events on New Guinea have not previously been studied. Even if the genus Saccharum was established on the island during pre-historic times the consequences of Toba and other global climate change events means that it would have been eliminated from New Guinea and would have had to be re-introduced during the period of human colonization. Indeed, given the evolution of Saccharum ’s immediate ancestors in Africa and Indochina it is most parsimonious to conclude that it was never native to New Guinea, but was introduced by humans relatively recently. Little work has been done on palaeotsunami evidence and ancient tsunami modelling in New Guinea. However, the recent recognition that the Aitape skull (dating to about 6 ka) may have been the victim of a tsunami (Goff et al. 2017) show that, in the past, tsunami have pen etrated significantly (about 10 km in this case) into the interior of the island to have a profound effect on biodiversity. This tsunami would have left the north coast of the island impoverished of plant life for several decades after.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.06.20.162842",
    doi = "10.1101/2020.06.20.162842"
}

@incollection{crossref2023migratorial,
    title = "migratorial, adj.",
    year = "2023",
    booktitle = "Oxford English Dictionary",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oed/9914098730",
    doi = "10.1093/oed/9914098730"
}