Tunicates

@article{garstang1928the,
    author = "Garstang, Walter",
    title = "The Morphology of the Tunicata, and its bearings on the Phylogeny of the Chordata",
    year = "1928",
    journal = "Journal of Cell Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.s2-72.285.51",
    doi = "10.1242/jcs.s2-72.285.51",
    number = "285",
    pages = "51-187",
    volume = "S2-72"
}

@article{garstang1928the6,
    author = "Garstang, W",
    title = "The morphology of the Tunicata and its bearings on the phylogeny of the Chordata",
    year = "1928",
    journal = "Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, v. 72, p. 51-187",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Garstang, W., 1928, The morphology of the Tunicata and its bearings on the phylogeny of the Chordata: Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, v. 72, p. 51-187.}"
}

@article{s261171571b52fdff8f22e216281fac5e80092c753,
    author = "Garstang, W.",
    title = "Memoirs: The Morphology of the Tunicata, and its Bearings on the Phylogeny of the Chordata",
    year = "1928",
    journal = "Journal of Cell Science",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/61171571b52fdff8f22e216281fac5e80092c753",
    is_oa = "true",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "268",
    semanticscholar_id = "61171571b52fdff8f22e216281fac5e80092c753"
}

@misc{berrill1950the1,
    author = "Berrill, N. J",
    title = "The Tunicata with an account of the British species",
    year = "1950",
    howpublished = "The Ray Society, No. 133",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Berrill, N. J., 1950, The Tunicata with an account of the British species. The Ray Society, No. 133.}"
}

@incollection{crossref1962chordata,
    title = "CHORDATA: Tunicates",
    year = "1962",
    booktitle = "Introduction to Seashore Life of the San Francisco Bay Region and the Coast of Northern California",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520406179-027",
    doi = "10.1525/9780520406179-027",
    pages = "127-135"
}

@incollection{berrill1975chordata,
    author = "Berrill, N.J.",
    title = "CHORDATA: TUNICATA",
    year = "1975",
    booktitle = "Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-282502-6.50013-3",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-0-12-282502-6.50013-3",
    pages = "241-282"
}

@incollection{berrill1975chordata2,
    author = "Berrill, N. J",
    editor = "Giese, A. C. and Pearse, J. S.",
    title = "Chordata: Tunicata",
    year = "1975",
    booktitle = "Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates II. Ectoprocts and Lesser Coelomates",
    publisher = "New York, Academic Press, p. 241-282",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Berrill, N. J., 1975, Chordata: Tunicata, in Giese, A. C., and Pearse, J. S., eds., Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates II. Ectoprocts and Lesser Coelomates: New York, Academic Press, p. 241-282.}"
}

@article{bone1978cupular3,
    author = "Bone, Q. and Ryan, K. P",
    title = "Cupular sense organs in Ciona (Tunicata",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Ascidiacea): Journal of Zoology, London, v. 186, p. 417-429",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bone, Q., and Ryan, K. P., 1978, Cupular sense organs in Ciona (Tunicata: Ascidiacea): Journal of Zoology, London, v. 186, p. 417-429.}"
}

@article{monniot1978recent7,
    author = "Monniot, C. and Monniot, F",
    title = "Recent work on the deep-sea tunicates",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review, v. 16, p. 181-228",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Monniot, C., and Monniot, F., 1978, Recent work on the deep-sea tunicates: Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review, v. 16, p. 181-228.}"
}

@article{bone1979the4,
    author = "Bone, Q. and Ryan, K. P",
    title = "The Langerhans receptor of Oikopleura (Tunicata",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Larvacea): Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, v. 59, p. 69-75",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bone, Q., and Ryan, K. P., 1979, The Langerhans receptor of Oikopleura (Tunicata: Larvacea): Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, v. 59, p. 69-75.}"
}

@inproceedings{bone1980the5,
    author = "Bone, Q. and Ryan, K. P. and Anderson, P. A. V. and Pulsford, A",
    title = "The communication between individuals in salp chains 1. Morphology of the system",
    year = "1980",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the Royal Society, London B, v. 210, p. 549-558",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bone, Q., Ryan, K. P., Anderson, P. A. V., and Pulsford, A., 1980, The communication between individuals in salp chains 1. Morphology of the system: Proceedings of the Royal Society, London B, v. 210, p. 549-558.}"
}

@article{doi10108000364827200010414567,
    author = "Sordino, P. and Heisenberg, C. and Cirino, P. and Toscano, A. and Giuliano, P. and Marino, R. and Pinto, M. and Santis, R. De",
    title = "A mutational approach to the study of development of the protochordate Ciona intestinalis (Tunicata, Chordata)",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Sarsia",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1dbd739afe07d157e7d3a49d879383c47963f35a",
    doi = "10.1080/00364827.2000.10414567",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "2",
    pages = "173-176",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "33",
    semanticscholar_id = "1dbd739afe07d157e7d3a49d879383c47963f35a",
    volume = "85"
}

@misc{crossref2005appendicularian,
    title = "Appendicularian (Chordata, Tunicata)",
    year = "2005",
    booktitle = "Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/0471743984.vse0580",
    doi = "10.1002/0471743984.vse0580"
}

@misc{crossref2005ascidiacea,
    title = "Ascidiacea (Chordata, Tunicata)",
    year = "2005",
    booktitle = "Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/0471743984.vse0681",
    doi = "10.1002/0471743984.vse0681"
}

@article{doi101007s0043500700415,
    author = "Stach, T.",
    title = "Ontogeny of the appendicularian Oikopleura dioica (Tunicata, Chordata) reveals characters similar to ascidian larvae with sessile adults",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Zoomorphology",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/c2d3f013271e5b2834a50d35e0acc505eaf82a9c",
    doi = "10.1007/s00435-007-0041-5",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "3",
    pages = "203-214",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "28",
    semanticscholar_id = "c2d3f013271e5b2834a50d35e0acc505eaf82a9c",
    volume = "126"
}

@article{doi101007s0043500800691,
    author = "Stach, T. and Kirbach, A.",
    title = "Larval convergence in a colonial tunicate: the organization of the sarcotubular complex in Ecteinascidia turbinata (Perophoridae, Phlebobranchiata, Tunicata, Chordata)",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Zoomorphology",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/eb5c42763ee9b7cf79aa45d47737e58c5d6cc74d",
    doi = "10.1007/s00435-008-0069-1",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    pages = "1-11",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "7",
    semanticscholar_id = "eb5c42763ee9b7cf79aa45d47737e58c5d6cc74d",
    volume = "128"
}

@article{doi101007s0043500800833,
    author = "Stach, T. and Kirbach, A.",
    title = "Larval convergence in a colonial tunicate: the organization of the sarcotubular complex in Ecteinascidia turbinata (Perophoridae, Phlebobranchiata, Tunicata, Chordata)",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Zoomorphology",
    url = "https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00435-008-0083-3.pdf",
    doi = "10.1007/s00435-008-0083-3",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "2",
    pages = "197-198",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "5",
    semanticscholar_id = "7b93dfec09a91f959f5f008b0ccd2e318c2fbd71",
    volume = "128"
}

Salps are marine planktonic chordates that possess an obligatory alternation of reproductive modes in subsequent generations. Within tunicates, salps represent a derived life cycle and are of interest in considerations of the evolutionary origin of complex anatomical structures and life history strategies. In the present study, the eyes and brains of both the sexual, aggregate blastozooid and the asexual, solitary oozooid stage of Thalia democratica (Forskål,) were digitally reconstructed in detail based on serial sectioning for light and transmission electron microscopy. The blastozooid stage of T. democratica possesses three pigment cup eyes, situated in the anterior ventral part of the brain. The eyes are arranged in a way that the optical axes of each eye point toward different directions. Each eye is an inverse eye that consists of two different cell types: pigment cells (pigc) and rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells (prcs). The oozooid stage of T. democratica is equipped with a single horseshoe‐shaped eye, positioned in the anterior dorsal part of the brain. The opening of the horseshoe‐shaped eye points anteriorly. Similar to the eyes of the blastozooid, the eye of the oozooid consists of pigment cells and rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells. The rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells possess apical microvilli that form a densely packed presumably photosensitive receptor part adjacent to the concave side of the pigc. We suggest correspondences of the individual eyes in the blastozooid stage to respective parts of the single horseshoe‐shaped eye in the oozooid stage and hypothesize that the differences in visual structures and brain anatomies evolved as a result of the aggregate life style of the blastozooid as opposed to the solitary life style of the oozooid.

@article{doi101002jmor20722,
    author = "Braun, K. and Stach, T.",
    title = "Structure and ultrastructure of eyes and brains of Thalia democratica (Thaliacea, Tunicata, Chordata)",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology",
    abstract = "Salps are marine planktonic chordates that possess an obligatory alternation of reproductive modes in subsequent generations. Within tunicates, salps represent a derived life cycle and are of interest in considerations of the evolutionary origin of complex anatomical structures and life history strategies. In the present study, the eyes and brains of both the sexual, aggregate blastozooid and the asexual, solitary oozooid stage of Thalia democratica (Forskål,) were digitally reconstructed in detail based on serial sectioning for light and transmission electron microscopy. The blastozooid stage of T. democratica possesses three pigment cup eyes, situated in the anterior ventral part of the brain. The eyes are arranged in a way that the optical axes of each eye point toward different directions. Each eye is an inverse eye that consists of two different cell types: pigment cells (pigc) and rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells (prcs). The oozooid stage of T. democratica is equipped with a single horseshoe‐shaped eye, positioned in the anterior dorsal part of the brain. The opening of the horseshoe‐shaped eye points anteriorly. Similar to the eyes of the blastozooid, the eye of the oozooid consists of pigment cells and rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells. The rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells possess apical microvilli that form a densely packed presumably photosensitive receptor part adjacent to the concave side of the pigc. We suggest correspondences of the individual eyes in the blastozooid stage to respective parts of the single horseshoe‐shaped eye in the oozooid stage and hypothesize that the differences in visual structures and brain anatomies evolved as a result of the aggregate life style of the blastozooid as opposed to the solitary life style of the oozooid.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1bc38a376dc5582acb285d84589c6a55b2f9070e",
    doi = "10.1002/jmor.20722",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "10",
    pages = "1421-1437",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "14",
    semanticscholar_id = "1bc38a376dc5582acb285d84589c6a55b2f9070e",
    volume = "278"
}

@article{purushothaman2018an,
    author = "Purushothaman, Jasmine and Hansda, Samir and Dey, Jayeeta and Mohan, Smruthu and Basu, Anindita and Venkataraman, K.",
    title = "An annotated checklist of Thaliaceans (Chordata: Tunicates)",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Marine Biodiversity",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-017-0698-z",
    doi = "10.1007/s12526-017-0698-z",
    number = "4",
    pages = "1903-1930",
    volume = "48"
}

Abstract The organization of the body cavities is an important morphological trait that can be used for establishing the phylogenetic relationships between different groups of animals. In the present study, the hemocoel and coelomic systems of 10‐hr‐old juveniles and adults of the hermaphroditic oikopleurid Oikopleura gracilis were examined using light and transmission electron microscopy. The trunk hemocoel in 10‐hr‐old juveniles was represented by small clefts containing layers of extracellular matrix of adjacent tissues or interstices with migrating primordial germ syncytium. The wide hemocoel in the tail contained extracellular strands, subdividing the hemocoel into hemal sinuses. In adults, a large hemocoel appeared in the trunk and tail, and also contained extracellular strands. The hermaphroditic gonad was surrounded by its own lining, separating it from the hemocoel. The gamete‐filled cavity in the ovary and testis appeared only at late‐stage gonadogenesis, when the pre‐spawning reduction of syncytium occurred in the gonads. The true coelom in 10‐hr‐old juveniles and adults was represented by the pericardium. The lining of the pericardium consisted of myoepithelial and peritoneal cells. In the myoepithelial cells of 10‐hr‐old juveniles, myofibrils had been formed. The myoepithelial cells of adults had several parallel rows of completely differentiated myofibrils. The substantial reduction of the coelomic and circulatory systems in O. gracilis evidently results from the extreme shortening of ontogeny in appendicularians. Development in O. gracilis from early juvenile to adult involves the following steps, which also suggest how the tunicate heart may have evolved: a single‐layered coelomic sac gives rise to a grooved pericardium with an open hemal sinus (simple heart). In ascidians, this simple heart in turn gives rise to a closed tubular, double‐layered heart–pericardial complex, with a separate pericardial cavity and a closed heart, whose wall is formed by specialized myocardium.

@article{doi101111ivb12286,
    author = "Savelieva, A. V. and Темерева, Е. Н.",
    title = "Ultrastructure of the body cavities in juveniles and adults of the appendicularian Oikopleura gracilis (Tunicata, Chordata) suggests how the heart may have evolved in tunicates",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Invertebrate Biology",
    abstract = "Abstract The organization of the body cavities is an important morphological trait that can be used for establishing the phylogenetic relationships between different groups of animals. In the present study, the hemocoel and coelomic systems of 10‐hr‐old juveniles and adults of the hermaphroditic oikopleurid Oikopleura gracilis were examined using light and transmission electron microscopy. The trunk hemocoel in 10‐hr‐old juveniles was represented by small clefts containing layers of extracellular matrix of adjacent tissues or interstices with migrating primordial germ syncytium. The wide hemocoel in the tail contained extracellular strands, subdividing the hemocoel into hemal sinuses. In adults, a large hemocoel appeared in the trunk and tail, and also contained extracellular strands. The hermaphroditic gonad was surrounded by its own lining, separating it from the hemocoel. The gamete‐filled cavity in the ovary and testis appeared only at late‐stage gonadogenesis, when the pre‐spawning reduction of syncytium occurred in the gonads. The true coelom in 10‐hr‐old juveniles and adults was represented by the pericardium. The lining of the pericardium consisted of myoepithelial and peritoneal cells. In the myoepithelial cells of 10‐hr‐old juveniles, myofibrils had been formed. The myoepithelial cells of adults had several parallel rows of completely differentiated myofibrils. The substantial reduction of the coelomic and circulatory systems in O. gracilis evidently results from the extreme shortening of ontogeny in appendicularians. Development in O. gracilis from early juvenile to adult involves the following steps, which also suggest how the tunicate heart may have evolved: a single‐layered coelomic sac gives rise to a grooved pericardium with an open hemal sinus (simple heart). In ascidians, this simple heart in turn gives rise to a closed tubular, double‐layered heart–pericardial complex, with a separate pericardial cavity and a closed heart, whose wall is formed by specialized myocardium.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/ivb.12286",
    doi = "10.1111/ivb.12286",
    openalex = "W3014162467",
    references = "doi10100797836429105483"
}

@incollection{paululat2023chordata,
    author = "Paululat, Achim and Purschke, Günter",
    title = "Chordata, Urochordata (Tunicata, Manteltiere)",
    year = "2023",
    booktitle = "Metazoa - Morphologie und Evolution der vielzelligen Tiere",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-66184-0\_11",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-662-66184-0\_11",
    pages = "189-202"
}

Appendicularia comprises about 70 holoplanktonic species traditionally classified in three families: Oikopleuridae, Fritillariidae, Kowalevskiidae. Despite their eminent phylogenetic position and their important role in ocean ecosystems, most research focuses on the model organism Oikopleura dioica while the diversity of appendicularians remains underexplored. Here, we present a comparative morphological analysis of appendicularian endostyles, a pharyngeal gland homologous to the vertebrate thyroid. Based on light- and transmission electron-microscopical investigations in 12 species representing seven (of 15) genera from all three family-level taxa, we describe the 3D-anatomy of endostyles, histologically recognizable cell-types, and discuss our findings in a cladistic framework. We identified seven different cell types arranged in species specific patterns, including the formerly unrecognized 'bright cells'. Two ciliary bands - the peripharyngeal band and the retropharyngeal band - are associated with the endostyles. Outgroup comparison indicates that repeated apomorphic reductions of cell types, rows of cells, the retropharyngeal band, and the complete endostyle occurred within Appendicularia. We propose a phylogenetic hypothesis that suggests that "Oikopleuridae" is a paraphyletic grouping and supports an evolutionary scenario with multiple reductions functionally related to the evolution of the external filter house of appendicularians. While we document the diversity of endostyle anatomy, more detailed cladistic analysis, including other organ systems, is needed to resolve the phylogenetic relationships and to understand the evolution of appendicularian taxa.

@article{doi101002jmor70061,
    author = "Le, Mai‐Lee Van and Park, Seowon and Stach, Thomas",
    title = "Comparative 3D‐anatomy of Appendicularian Endostyles (Tunicata, Chordata) ‐ A Tale of Reduction",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology",
    abstract = {Appendicularia comprises about 70 holoplanktonic species traditionally classified in three families: Oikopleuridae, Fritillariidae, Kowalevskiidae. Despite their eminent phylogenetic position and their important role in ocean ecosystems, most research focuses on the model organism Oikopleura dioica while the diversity of appendicularians remains underexplored. Here, we present a comparative morphological analysis of appendicularian endostyles, a pharyngeal gland homologous to the vertebrate thyroid. Based on light- and transmission electron-microscopical investigations in 12 species representing seven (of 15) genera from all three family-level taxa, we describe the 3D-anatomy of endostyles, histologically recognizable cell-types, and discuss our findings in a cladistic framework. We identified seven different cell types arranged in species specific patterns, including the formerly unrecognized 'bright cells'. Two ciliary bands - the peripharyngeal band and the retropharyngeal band - are associated with the endostyles. Outgroup comparison indicates that repeated apomorphic reductions of cell types, rows of cells, the retropharyngeal band, and the complete endostyle occurred within Appendicularia. We propose a phylogenetic hypothesis that suggests that "Oikopleuridae" is a paraphyletic grouping and supports an evolutionary scenario with multiple reductions functionally related to the evolution of the external filter house of appendicularians. While we document the diversity of endostyle anatomy, more detailed cladistic analysis, including other organ systems, is needed to resolve the phylogenetic relationships and to understand the evolution of appendicularian taxa.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.70061",
    doi = "10.1002/jmor.70061",
    openalex = "W4411747048",
    references = "nielsen2007on"
}

Octacnemid ascidians inhabit the deep-sea and have evolved traits that facilitate the consumption of large prey (macrophagy). The deep ocean is difficult to sample, but with the combined efforts of several research cruises, supplemented by submersibles, a series of octacnemid specimens were acquired and appropriately subsampled for molecular and morphological analyses. Ascidian molecular phylogenies to date have included only a single species from the family Megalodicopia hians. This study presents the first molecular phylogenetic analyses within Octacnemidae, with 13 species represented, as well as attempts to resolve its position within Phlebobranchia. Previous phylogenies suggested a sister-group relationship between Octacnemidae and Corellidae. Our results further support their close relationship, though they were found to be non-monophyletic. One new genus and seven new species of Octacnemidae are formally described here, supported by molecular and morphological evidence. The new species are from deep sea, off California, Chile, and Western Australia.

@article{doi103390d17120859,
    author = "Mandre, Peter and Rouse, Greg W.",
    title = "Molecular Phylogeny of the Deep-Sea Predatory Octacnemidae (Ascidiacea, Tunicata, Chordata), with Seven New Species",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Diversity",
    abstract = "Octacnemid ascidians inhabit the deep-sea and have evolved traits that facilitate the consumption of large prey (macrophagy). The deep ocean is difficult to sample, but with the combined efforts of several research cruises, supplemented by submersibles, a series of octacnemid specimens were acquired and appropriately subsampled for molecular and morphological analyses. Ascidian molecular phylogenies to date have included only a single species from the family Megalodicopia hians. This study presents the first molecular phylogenetic analyses within Octacnemidae, with 13 species represented, as well as attempts to resolve its position within Phlebobranchia. Previous phylogenies suggested a sister-group relationship between Octacnemidae and Corellidae. Our results further support their close relationship, though they were found to be non-monophyletic. One new genus and seven new species of Octacnemidae are formally described here, supported by molecular and morphological evidence. The new species are from deep sea, off California, Chile, and Western Australia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/d17120859",
    doi = "10.3390/d17120859",
    openalex = "W4417358274",
    references = "doi101038nature04336, doi101046j1365294x200001020x, doi10108000222930010004232, doi101093bioinformaticsbts199, doi101093bioinformaticsbtu033, doi101093bioinformaticsbtz305, doi101093molbevmst010, doi101093molbevmsz189, doi101093sysbiosys029, doi101093sysbiosyy032, doi1011112041210x12410, doi101111j14636409201100493x, monniot1981some"
}

@incollection{paululat2025urochordata,
    author = "Paululat, Achim and Purschke, Günter",
    title = "Urochordata (Tunicata, Tunicates)",
    year = "2025",
    booktitle = "Metazoa – Morphology and Evolution of Animals",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-69904-1\_11",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-662-69904-1\_11",
    pages = "195-209"
}

Mercury is one of the most harmful pollutants in aquatic ecosystems. The present study assessed the effects of gradual concentrations of mercury (1, 10, 50, and 100 μg L-1) on the antioxidant status and fatty acid profiles in the viscera of the solitary ascidian Ciona intestinalis (Linnaeus, 1767). Additionally, histological analyses were conducted on the ovary to evaluate morphological changes induced by mercury exposure. The results revealed an increase in malondialdehyde (MDA), protein carbonyl (PCO), glutathione (GSH) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) levels. Additionally, metallothionein (MT) levels increased, while acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity decreased. Mercury exposure also altered the fatty acid profile, particularly monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) especially within the omega-3 and omega-6 families. Biochemical parameters were confirmed by the histopathological analysis, indicating significant morphological alterations in the ovaries of C. intestinalis, Irregular nuclear membranes, loosening of the cytoplasm and detachment of test and follicular cells from the oocyte membrane were observed.The complete destruction of the oocytes was noted at the highest mercury exposed ascidians.

@article{doi101016jmarpolbul2026119274,
    author = "Melki, Safa and Bejaoui, Safa and Azzouna, Atf and Soudani, Nejla and Raja, Ben Ahmed",
    title = "Acute mercury exposure affects the redox status system, fatty acid profile and the ovarian morphology of the solitary ascidian Ciona intestinalis (Chordata, Tunicata).",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Marine pollution bulletin",
    abstract = "Mercury is one of the most harmful pollutants in aquatic ecosystems. The present study assessed the effects of gradual concentrations of mercury (1, 10, 50, and 100 μg L-1) on the antioxidant status and fatty acid profiles in the viscera of the solitary ascidian Ciona intestinalis (Linnaeus, 1767). Additionally, histological analyses were conducted on the ovary to evaluate morphological changes induced by mercury exposure. The results revealed an increase in malondialdehyde (MDA), protein carbonyl (PCO), glutathione (GSH) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) levels. Additionally, metallothionein (MT) levels increased, while acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity decreased. Mercury exposure also altered the fatty acid profile, particularly monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) especially within the omega-3 and omega-6 families. Biochemical parameters were confirmed by the histopathological analysis, indicating significant morphological alterations in the ovaries of C. intestinalis, Irregular nuclear membranes, loosening of the cytoplasm and detachment of test and follicular cells from the oocyte membrane were observed.The complete destruction of the oocytes was noted at the highest mercury exposed ascidians.",
    url = "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41544508/",
    doi = "10.1016/j.marpolbul.2026.119274",
    pmid = "41544508"
}

@misc{lotufoNoneascidiacea,
    author = "Lotufo, Tito Monteiro da Cruz",
    title = {"Ascidiacea (Chordata: Tunicata) do litoral tropical brasileiro"},
    year = "None",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.11606/t.41.2002.tde-21052002-125049",
    doi = "10.11606/t.41.2002.tde-21052002-125049"
}